746 Widukind
the death of the husband. The social status and capabili-
ties of female widows varied over the course of the Middle
Ages and early Renaissance.
See alsoMARRIAGE.
Further reading:Caroline M. Barron and Anne F.
Sutton, eds., Medieval London Widows, 1300–1500(Lon-
don: Hambledon Press, 1994); Sandra Cavallo and Lyn-
dan Warner, eds., Widowhood in Medieval and Early
Modern Europe(New York: Longman, 1999); Louise Mir-
rer, ed., Upon My Husband’s Death: Widows in the Litera-
ture and Histories of Medieval Europe (Ann Arbor:
University of Michigan Press, 1992); Sue Sheridan
Walker, ed., Wife and Widow in Medieval England(Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan Press, 1993).
Widukind (d. 807)leader of Saxon resistance
Widukind was a member of the noble Saxon family of
Angaria in Westphalia. He was first mentioned in 777 at
the time of the first uprising of the Saxons. After its fail-
ure, he had to take refuge with the Danes but resumed
the revolt and won a clear victory at the Süntelgebirge in
- However, a major Carolingian offensive and severe
defeats soon forced him to submit. He accepted baptism
with CHARLEMAGNE as his godfather at Attigny in 785
and took no part in later rebellions. His descendants, the
Immedings, formed an influential clan in ninth- and
10th-century SAXONY. His life became the basis of numer-
ous medieval legends and Saxon nationalistic tales that
were often political in character and antagonistic to the
Carolingian tradition. He died in 807.
Further reading:Donald Bullough, The Age of Charle-
magne (London: Eleck Books, 1965); Friedrich Heer,
Charlemagne and His World(New York: Macmillan, 1975);
Rosamond McKitterick, The Frankish Kingdoms under the
Carolingians, 751–987(London: Longman, 1983).
Wilfrid, Saint (634–709)abbot, bishop of York, ecclesi-
astical politician
Wilfrid was born into a noble family in Northumbria and
educated at the monastery of LINDISFARNE. In the 650s he
spent time at LYONand ROME, where he learned the ritual
practices of the Roman church. Later as the abbot of Ripon,
he played a major role in introducing and promoting
Roman Catholic ideas and practices into northern ENGLAND
in 664, replacing the Irish or Celtic traditions especially at
the Synod of WHITBYin 663 and 644. As bishop of YORKin
669, he sent the first English appeal to Rome, in a dispute
with the archbishop of CANTERBURY. The papal decision in
his favor generated the disfavor of secular authorities and
he had to take refuge in Sussex in the south. From there he
tried to Christianize the local heathen SAXONS. He was
recalled to the north in 686 to direct the see of Hexham. An
ardent missionary, he never managed to get along with the
secular authorities, thereby undoing much of his work. He
died at Oundle, probably on April 24, 709.
See alsoMISSIONS AND MISSIONARIES, CHRISTIAN.
Further reading: Eddius Stephanus, The Life of
Bishop Wilfrid, trans. Bertram Colgrave (Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1985); D. P. Kirby, ed., Saint
Wilfrid at Hexham(Newcastle upon Tyne: Oriel Press,
1974); Wilhelm Levison, England and the Continent in the
Eighth Century(Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1946); Henry
Mayr-Harting, The Coming of Christianity to Anglo-Saxon
England,3d ed. (University Park: Pennsylvania State Uni-
versity Press, 1991).William I the Bad(1120–1166) Norman king of Sicily
William was the younger son of Roger II of SICILY, born
about 1120, and after the deaths of three older brothers,
he was crowned as coruler in 1151 and ruled under the
factional aegis of the hated Maio of Bari (d. 1160).
William had to be allied to the Muslim PALACEeunuchs
and was detested by the Norman nobility, who tried to
ally themselves with FREDERICK I BARBAROSSAand the
BYZANTINES. William gained papal approval for his rule
on June 18, 1156, at the Concordat of Benevento.
Though he defeated a Byzantine invasion in 1155, he lost
the Crown’s African possessions in 1160 to the ALMO-
HADS. Maio’s assassination on November 10, 1160,
unleashed a crisis. The king was arrested. His son and
heir, Roger, was murdered, and Muslims were massacred
at PALERMOand all over Sicily. William regained control
and punished the rebellious counts of the Italian main-
land and the towns of Sicily that had supported the mas-
sacres. Until his death William stayed in his palace and
entrusted the exercise of power to others. Their harsh
regime earned William his nickname “the Bad,” which,
however, was only applied to him from the 14th century.
He was a patron of cultural activities and drew Muslim
scholars to his court. He died suddenly on May 7, 1166.
See alsoAL-IDRISI.
Further reading:Ugo Falcando, The History of the
Tyrants of Sicily by “Hugo Falcandus,” 1154–69,trans. Gra-
ham A. Loud and Thomas Wiedemann (Manchester:
Manchester University Press, 1998); Donald Matthew, The
Norman Kingdom of Sicily(Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
versity Press, 1992); John Julius Norwich, The Kingdom in
the Sun, 1130–1194(New York: Harper & Row, 1970).William I the Conqueror (ca. 1028–1087)duke of
Normandy, king of England
William was born about 1028 in Falaise in NORMANDYas
the illegitimate son of Duke Robert I (r. 1027–35) and
Herleva or Arlette, the daughter of an undertaker. In 1035,
at the age of seven or eight, he survived a disputed succes-
sion and succeeded his father, eventually fully establishing
his authority as duke by defeating rebels at Val-ès-Dunes
in 1047 and at Arques in 1053. He later defeated his over-
lord, King Henry I (r. 1031–60) of FRANCE, in the Battles
of Mortemer in 1054 and Varaville in 1057, despite
Henry’s help in the succession crisis. In 1063 he added
Maine and other regions to the duchy of Normandy. In