Attila, the Hun 75the Younger founded the first formal community in
859 during the reign of Michael III the Drunkard
(r. 842–867). In the reign of BASILI, Kolobou, the first
monastery, was founded sometime before 883 by John
Kolobos. The construction of the “Great Lavra” in 963 by
a certain Athanasius of Athos was the first large coeno-
bitic monastery with an imperial benefactor, Nikephoros
II Phocas (r. 963–969). Subsequent imperial support and
protection followed. By 1001 the number of monasteries
had multiplied to 46. There were monks from all over the
Orthodox world, including Georgians, Armenians, Serbs,
Italians, Russians, and Bulgarians. Acting in unison with
a government headed by the prôtos, the monasteries
increased their independence along with their wealth,
which was augmented by properties acquired outside
Athos. They survived LATINrule, the raids of the Catalan
Grand Company, imperial despoiling, and conquest in
1430 by the OTTOMANS, who guaranteed the peninsula’s
independence in return for annual tribute. The Athonian
monasteries continue to thrive to this day.
Further reading:A. Bryer and M. Cunningham, eds.,
Mount Athos and Byzantine Monasticism(Aldershot: Vario-
rum, 1996); Jacque Lefort, “Athos,” EMA, 1.127–29;
Patriarchikon Hidryma Paterikon Meleton, The Treasures
of Mount Athos: Illuminated Manuscripts, Miniatures-Head-
pieces-Initial Letters(Athens: Ekdotike Athenon, 1974);
John Julius Norwich and Reresby Sitwell, Mount Athos
(New York: Harper & Row, 1966).
Atlas Mountains The Atlas mountain system in
MOROCCOextending into modern Algeria takes the shape
of an elongated oblong. Within its ranges there is a vast
complex of plains and plateaus. The northern section is
formed by the Tell Atlas, which receives enough rainfall
to support forests. From west to east several distinct col-
lections of mountains exist. The first of these is Er-Rif in
Morocco between Ceuta and Melilla with a peak line
exceeding 5,000 feet at several points and topping out at
8,058 feet, Mount Tidirhine. East of a gap formed by the
Moulouya River lie the Algerian ranges, including the
Ouarsenis Massif, reaching a height of 6,512 feet; the
Great Kabylie, at 7,572 feet at the peak of Lalla Khedidja;
and the mountains of Kroumirie extending into Tunisia.
The southern section, which is desert, is appropri-
ately called the Saharan or High Atlas. It includes in the
center shorter ranges, such as the Ksour and Ouled-Naïl
mountains, between two mighty ranges, the Moroccan
High Atlas to the west and the Aurès Mountains to the
east. The High Atlas includes Mount Toubkal at 13,665
feet, the highest point in the Atlas Mountains. The Aurès
Mountains reach a height of 7,638 feet at Mount Chelia.
The mountains, with their difficult environment,
have provided a refuge for those who fled successive
invasions through the period 300 to 1500. BERBERpeople
have survived there, preserving their own languages, tra-
ditions, and beliefs, while accepting their own version of
an austere Islam.
See alsoALMOHADS;ALMORAVIDS.
Further reading:J. M. Houston, The Western Mediter-
ranean World: An Introduction to Its Regional Landscapes
(New York: Praeger, 1967).attainder SeeTREASON.Attila, the Hun (“The Scourge of God”) (ca. 400–453)
king of the Huns
Born about 400, Attila succeeded a series of Hunnish
chieftains of varying degrees of ferocity and efficiency.
Attila ruled jointly over the HUNSwith his brother, Bleda,
from 434 until 445, when he killed Bleda. He was
described as short, the norm among his people, with a
snub nose, small eyes, and a disconcerting stare that
frightened most who met his gaze. We know that he was
bearded, since a contemporary historian related that his
beard was “sprinkled with gray” when he met him in- Attila was a ruthless natural leader who could
inspire boundless enthusiasm and devotion among his
followers. He fought his way to the leadership of the
Huns and held that position for at least 19 years.
In North Africa, the VANDALSmoved against EGYPT
in 440. This threatened the food supply of CONSTANTINO-
PLEand its subsidiary areas, since Egypt was at that time
the granary for the Middle East. The Eastern empire was
obliged to focus resources on protecting Egypt from the
Vandals, thereby facilitating Attila’s assault on the Balkan
Peninsula as far as Greece itself.
In about 450 Attila sent word to the Roman court in
ITA LY claiming Princess Honoria in marriage. His claim
was addressed to her brother, the emperor Valentinian III
(425–455), although GALLA PLACIDIA, their mother,
seems to have been the actual regnant. When his claim
was rejected, Atilla moved against western Europe, pillag-
ing west of the Rhine Valley.
Flavius Aetius (d. 454), a Roman general and an old
friend of Attila, raised a small force and led it north from
Italy. With the help of the Roman governor of Auvergne,
he reached an agreement with the VISIGOTHSunder their
king, Theodoric. The Visigoths and the Romans moved to
the relief of the city of Orléans, under siege by the Huns.
Attila promptly withdrew. The Huns then marched
toward the Rhine Valley. Aetius and Theodoric pursued
and caught him in the valley of the Marne River in July of
the year 451. In the fierce fighting Theodoric was killed
and Aetius’s horse was killed under him. However, at
Chalons-sur-Marne, or the “Mauriac Fields,” Attila’s
forces were nearly overwhelmed and he withdrew.
In spring 452, Attila marched against the Romans in
Italy. He destroyed the important city of Aquileia at the
northern end of the Adriatic and then Vicenza, VERONA,
Brescia, and Bergamo. Pope LEOI sought a truce with