confront the English in “playne fechting” (open fi ght-
ing, 9.750). Randolph does not comprehend the Scot-
tish reality yet, though Bruce does. Eventually, however,
Randolph sees the truth. Barbour designed this situa-
tion to justify guerrilla tactics before his courtly audi-
ence, assuring them that the national liberty of Scotland
is more important than chivalrous war.
Barbour subverts literary convention by attaching a
great deal of importance to the lower social classes.
Both the commoners and the nobility suffer from the
English oppression in the same manner, and the Bruce
must earn everyone’s respect. In book 2, the peasants
initially opt not to follow Bruce, but Barbour does not
condemn their conduct (2.503–510). He implies that
this is an understandable demeanour, since Bruce can-
not now fulfi l the duty to protect his subjects. Later,
upon Bruce’s return to Scotland, the people are too
frightened of the English to collaborate with him
(5.123–132), and Barbour understands their behavior
once more. Bruce must show that he is a proper
national leader who can take care of his subjects before
they pay fealty to him. Once they accept him, however,
the peasants prove helpful; indeed, it is their interven-
tion in the Battle of Bannockburn that secures victory
(13.225–264). Thus, in the climax of the romance,
Barbour destabilizes the chivalric code by this displace-
ment of roles. On doing this, the author emphasizes
the importance of every single Scot, regardless of their
social status.
The martially centered focus of the narrative does
not allow for the development of COURTLY LOVE. Ideal-
ized, courteous scenes are little more than incidental
because of the minimal presence of female characters.
Robert the Bruce’s well-known extramarital affairs are
mentioned in passing (5.543–546), where his mis-
tresses are given a practical rather than amorous role
since they are labeled as informers. Not even Bruce’s
relationship with his wife Elizabeth gets much atten-
tion; she is referred to as the “quen(e)” without any
further individualization. From the moment the Eng-
lish kidnap her (4.39) until she is freed again (13.693–
697), she disappears from the narrative; her husband
does not give her a single thought. By removing
women, Barbour redefi nes courtesy in The Bruce to
confi rm Bruce’s ideological purpose.
Barbour redefi nes courtesy not as social exchanges
between the upper classes as a marker of their status,
but rather as interclass communication, challenging
late medieval literary and societal conventions. The
Bruce displays the same courtesy with the few female
characters no matter their class. In 16.270–296, the
Bruce stops his army’s advance to help a laundress to
give birth. The poet could have regarded the king’s
demeanor as an act of mercy toward a commoner or
transformed the laundress into a helpless lady; instead,
he explicitly underlines Bruce’s chivalry: “Yis wes a full
gret curtasy” (16.293). This is a very rare example of
how courtesy is transferred to an interclass exchange
between a nobleman and a commoner. By subverting
this literary convention, Barbour constructs Bruce as a
people’s king with an egalitarian behavior toward all
Scots.
Bruce’s death follows the archetypal model for kings
and rulers in late medieval literature. In book 20, Scot-
land and England sign a treaty in which England rec-
ognizes Robert I’s sovereignty and the independence of
the country (20.55–58). After the monarch’s death, the
vassals’ devotion and grief permeate the narrative
(20.263–268). The Bruce secures his way into paradise
by going on a crusade even after perishing when Doug-
las takes his heart to Spain to fi ght the Arabs. As a
Christ-like fi gure, by symbolically rising from the dead,
the king of Scots consummates the holy enterprise of
confronting the heathen.
See also SCOTTISH CHAUCERIANS.
FURTHER READING
Ebin, L. A. “John Barbour’s Bruce: Poetry, History and
Propaganda.” Studies in Scottish Literature 9 (1971–72):
218–242.
Goldstein, R. J. The Matter of Scotland. Lincoln and London:
University of Nebraska Press, 1993.
Kliman, B. W. “The Idea of Chivalry in Barbour’s Bruce.”
Studies in Scottish Literature 35 (1973): 477–508.
Sergi MainerBRUSSELS CROSS (11th century) A reli-
quary (relic case) now housed in the Cathedral of Sts.
Michael and Gudule in Brussels, Belgium, the badly
damaged wooden cross, once covered in silver and
jewels, bears an inscription, in FUTHARK runes, resem-94 BRUSSELS CROSS