x introDuCtion
english chaucerians, such as Thomas hoccleve and
John lydgate. Both wrote in middle english and in a
variety of genres, including the complaint, lyric, and
narrative. Similarly, the French noble charles d’Orléans
could almost be dubbed a French chaucerian for his
reliance upon the english poet for inspiration for
verses that he composed in both French and english
while a captive in the Tower of london.
celtic poetry from this era tends to be nationalistic.
For instance, John Barbour’s Bruce (ca. 1375) is a long
(14,000 lines) heroic poem that combines chronicle
and romance to celebrate the life, reign, and victories of
robert i the Bruce. Other Scottish poets from the 15th
century, including robert henryson, Gavin Douglas,
William Dunbar, and even James i of Scotland, are
often grouped together under the heading “Scottish
chaucerians,” though this is somewhat of a misnomer.
These celts did not strive to imitate chaucer so much
as to embody his spirit in a non-english manner.
The Book of Leinster (ca. 1100) contains many early
irish poems, legends, and geographical details. it also
records battles fought, and, perhaps most significantly,
it preserves some of the great ulster cycle (tales of
the hero cú chulainn), including the Táin Bó Cúalnge
(Cattle Raid of Cooley). as well, the only copy of Togail
Troi, an irish adaptation of tales of the destruction of
Troy, is found here too. later irish poetry, like that
of its companion lands, collapsed toward chronicle,
romance, and lyric.
One of the greatest Welsh poets, Dafydd ap Gwilym,
dates to this era, as he flourished in the 14th century.
Dafydd drew his inspiration from continental and tra-
ditional Welsh sources but avoided, for the most part,
english ones. although he lived in a time of relative
peace, Welsh nationalism was strong; indeed, by 1400,
Owen Glyn Dwr had fomented an uprising that was
quickly demolished. in addition to Dafydd, a number
of lesser poets were also active, demonstrating that
the great Welsh poetic tradition continued unabated,
if altered.
tuDor Era poEtry
The middle english era ends with the close of the 15th
century, not so much because henry Vii ascended the
throne, but rather because of the advent of the print-
ing press and the first stirrings of the reformation.
When the first printed english book appeared in 1476,
english had been transformed into a form not too dif-
ferent than present-day english, except orthographi-
cally. Printing helped to spread a literary standard
under the Tudors. The “King’s [Queen’s] english” was
eventually disseminated by such centrally issued works
as the Book of common Prayer (1549, 1552, 1559)
and the authorized Version of the Bible (1611).
lyric poetry dominated the Tudor era. The most
significant development was the refinement of the
sonnet, a 14-line lyric poem that had been perfected
in 14th-century italy by Petrarch. courtier-poets
henry howard, earl of Surrey, and Sir Thomas Wyatt
adapted the form to english, and its popularity
exploded. Sonnet sequences, series of sonnets linked
together by theme and content, quickly became the
fashion. Sonnets depended upon a number of conven-
tions, including a redefinition of courtly love, conceits
(unique metaphorical comparisons), paradox, and
other such linguistic tensions, which reflected the ten-
sion found at the heart of most sonnets—disdain for
the poet by the beloved. Sonnets became so important
as a mark of true poetic skill that it became essen-
tial that every aspiring author write them. William
Shakespeare, for instance, best known as the “play-
wright of the people,” established himself by compos-
ing a sonnet sequence and solidified his patronage
by writing long narrative poems such as The Rape of
Lucrece (ca. 1590).
Though arguably the most popular poetry, sonnets
were not the only development found in the Tudor age.
Poets experimented with a variety of forms, including
the strambotto, epanodes, sapphics, quantitative vers-
es, and quatorzains. musical poetry grew in distinction
during the Tudor era, encouraged by the thriving uni-
versity culture as well as court culture. henry Viii was
known to compose songs and ballads, and, according
to traditional folklore, wrote the still-popular tune
“Greensleeves.” John Dowland and Thomas campion
were masters of the ayre (lute song) and madrigal, but
numerous others tried their hand at them. Poets such
as Sir Philip Sidney also adapted traditionally musical
poetry (e.g., the villanelle and canzone) to nonmusical
settings.