introDuCtion xiclassical literature provided a great deal of inspi-
ration during the Tudor age, providing models for
the reinvention of traditional forms such the pas-
toral and the eclogue. Pastoral poetry was wide-
spread and became adapted to fit other literary genres
as well, resulting in pastoral drama, and pastoral
sonnet sequences, although superb pieces, such as
christopher marlowe’s “The Passionate Shepherd to
his love” (before 1592) and the various responses
to it, were also popular. long narrative poetry made
a comeback, especially in the form of the epyllion
(minor epic), such as marlowe’s Hero and Leander.
eclogues, pastorals, and their accompanying themes
were adapted by the sonneteers too. Some of the fin-
est versions of this can be found in richard Barnfield’s
works, including The Affectionate Shepherd (1594),
although more traditional forms were also found, such
as edmund Spenser’s series of eclogues, The Shepheard’s
Calender (1579). Poetic translations of Ovid and Virgil
allowed easier access to latin works, as well as result-
ing in unique poetry. The prevalence of classical forms
also inspired new versions of quantitative verse and the
return of the epic in the form of Spenser’s The Faerie
Queene (1595).
irish literature became less influential in england
as ireland was firmly subsumed under the english
crown. Writers like Spenser, who were born in
england but spent their adult life in ireland, became
the dominant voices. Scotland, however, retained its
own distinct voice. a great deal of Scottish poetry from
this time survives in the form of the popular ballad. as
well, the Scottish monarchs mary, Queen of Scots, and
her son, James Vi (later James i of england), were both
accomplished writers in a number of genres, including
poetry.
Finally, devotional poetry in the Tudor era is com-
plicated. The reformation irrevocably changed the
world—politically, socially, intellectually, and literarily,
as well as spiritually. Poetry became the medium for
celebrating the Protestant cause and for showing sup-
port for other Protestant powers in europe. Poetry
also became the language of the court, especially dur-
ing the reign of Queen elizabeth i, who demanded
that her courtiers speak using the language of courtly
love. Poetry also became a way of upholding one’s
beliefs: anne askew, the Protestant martyr, and robert
Southwell, the Jesuit martyr, for instance, both wrote
poetry about their faith during their incarceration. The
Protestant emphasis on personal devotional reading,
especially of the Bible, merged with the political dimen-
sions and the growing interest in translation, resulted
in numerous adaptations of the biblical psalms. in
particular, The Whole Book of Psalms Collected Into
English Meter (Sternhold and hopkins, 1562) became
the most popular book of poetry printed in english,
going through almost 500 editions within 150 years.
however, this was not the only version of the psalms.
another well-known version is the Sidneian Psalms
(1599), a poetic adaptation/translation begun by Sir
Philip Sidney and completed by his sister, mary Sidney
herbert, countess of Pembroke. as well, the first son-
net sequence in english, Meditations of a Penitent Sinner
(1560), written by anne lock, consists of 26 sonnets
considering Psalm 51.
While these verse forms—the sonnet, the son-
net sequence, and the lyric—would continue in
popularity throughout the 17th century, the onset of
the english civil War and the establishment of the
commonwealth (1642–1660) saw a distinct shift in
religious sentiments, to be sure, but also in political
and social expectations. literature and poetry changed
with the government, and the lighthearted courtly
love of the Tudor era became exchanged for heavier
lyric poetry or frenzied carpe diem motif poems from
the cavalier poets. The increasing emphases on
empire and the New World also irrevocably altered
the view of english identity, a change also reflected in
the literature.thE FuturE oF prE-1600 poEtry
it might sound odd to discuss the future of pre-
poetry some 400 years after its end; however, there
remains a great deal of work to be done in this area.
many manuscripts in which vernacular writing sur-
vived have been overlooked, neglected, or ignored.
During the reformation and after, some manuscripts
were burned, shredded, or otherwise destroyed. Still
others have been hidden away and lost—even today,
manuscripts are being found. For instance, Sir Gawain
and the Green Knight was not printed until 1839, 300