the general term, the “Matter of Antiquity.” Until GEOF-
FREY CHAUCER and JOHN GOWER, who wrote in the 14th
and 15th centuries, most English texts that contained
classical allusions were translations of Latin or conti-
nental French, Italian, or German texts. Most of this
material was Christianized, if not in the Latin or Conti-
nental source material, then in the English. Because so
many of the source texts were from the Continent,
classical allusions in medieval English literature served
as a way for English literature to associate itself both
with the Greek and Roman past as well as Continental
literatures (thus granting to literature in English a kind
of double authority). Until the 14th century, there was
a general sense that Continental literature (particularly
French) was more sophisticated than English litera-
ture, thus making that association all the more neces-
sary. Drawing on Latin or French texts validated
English literature. In addition, the classical source
material simply provided a familiar stock of characters
and plots (such as the often-retold Troilus and Cres-
sida story) that could be manipulated for many and
varied purposes.
During the Renaissance, there was a dramatic
increase in the number and variety of classical allu-
sions as more classical texts were rediscovered and
studied and humanism became infl uential. Yet Renais-
sance English literature continued to focus on the Mat-
ters of Troy, Alexander, and Rome, and poets devoted
a great deal of energy to translations of classical texts.
However, Renaissance writers turned directly to the
Greek and Latin sources instead of the Continental
versions.
Most classical allusions in medieval and Renaissance
literature are found in ROMANCEs, particularly in verse
romances; there were, however, notable exceptions.
The Matter of Troy makes an early and signifi cant
appearance in Geoffrey of Monmouth’s History of the
Kings of Britain (ca. 1138) and in LAYAMON’s The BRUT
(ca. 1200). In both of these works, a direct connection
was drawn between the kings of Britain (including the
mythic King ARTHUR, who makes an early appearance
in Geoffrey) and the royal family of Troy. Exiled, the
nobility of Troy (in the person of Brut, a descendent of
Aeneas) wandered onto the British Isles and colonized
them. For Geoffrey and Layamon, creating an associa-
tion between the British and the Trojans brought a
veneer of respectability to the history of England as
well as historical signifi cance and a heroic, mythical
“reality.” The Matter of Troy is the one area of classical
allusion in which English literature was most original
and innovative, even if the source material was the
usual continental or classical texts. In the Matter of
Troy, medieval English literature moved beyond mere
translation into invention of new legends.
The Matter of Troy continued to make substantial
appearances in English throughout the 14th and 15th
century, such as Chaucer’s version of Troilus and Cri-
seyde (1381); Gower’s CONFESSIO AMANTIS (begun 1386;
it includes other Greek myths as well as the Trojan
material); and the alliterative Destruction of Troy (1400),
which drew heavily and closely on a Latin text by
Guido delle Colonne, Historia destructionis Troiae (His-
torical destruction of Troy). Colonne’s text also pro-
vided the source for JOHN LYDGATE’s Troy Book (ca.
1412–20) and Siege of Thebes (ca. 1421–22). The
destruction of Troy by the Greeks was also referred to
in SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN KNIGHT (late 14th cen-
tury). As with all of the Matter of Antiquity, the Trojan
stories were reinvented as lessons in Christian moral
values and as an opportunity to criticize unjust rulers
without referring directly to contemporary fi gures.
However, because of the attribution of the founding of
Britain to the heroes of Troy, the Matter of Troy moved
beyond classical allusion into the creation of an Eng-
lish national identity.
During the Renaissance, the Matter of Troy contin-
ued to be popular, most notably in the works of WIL-
LIAM SHAKESPEARE, including his own version of Troilus
and Cressida (1603), and SIR PHILIP SIDNEY’s Arcadia
(1580). In contrast to the Middle Ages, though, in the
16th and 17th centuries, the Matter of Troy was viewed
primarily as source material for plots and characters,
and the connection between Trojan and English roy-
alty was either ignored or challenged by other myths of
origin, which tended to separate the English from con-
tinental identities.
As with the Matter of Troy, legends about Alexander
the Great were retold, expanded upon, and Christian-
ized. The various Alexander romances, most of which
were fi rst written on the Continent and then translatedCLASSICAL TRADITION 117