been written by hand and not printed. Before the
invention of the printing press, all texts were so writ-
ten; thus, the majority of medieval works (with the
exception of some 15th century texts) are manuscripts.
As printing took some time to become widely avail-
able, a great many early modern texts exist only in
manuscript form as well. Moreover, some authors,
such as SIR THOMAS WYATT, preferred that their work
be only available in manuscript even when the printing
press was available for use.
Most medieval manuscripts were written on parch-
ment, made of low-quality calfskin or sheepskin,
though some were composed on vellum (thicker, high
quality sheep or calf skin). Late Middle Ages texts were
occasionally written on paper. Some, though not all,
contained pictures called illuminations. These may
have been simple decorations, or may have been related
to the content of the manuscript; for instance, the
manuscript that contains SIR GAWAIN AND THE GREEN
KNIGHT contains elaborate illuminations that refl ect the
contents of the poem.
Today, British medieval manuscripts follow a con-
sistent cataloguing system for the most part. Docu-
ments are labeled by city, library name, and then
manuscript name. Thus, a work found in London,
Lambeth Palace, MS 92 would be housed at the Lam-
beth Palace Library in London, and be labeled “Manu-
script 92” on the shelf. There are some obvious
exceptions to this standard practice (for instance, the
EXETER BOOK), but this is, for the most part, standard
practice.
See also COTTON VITELLIUS A.XV.
FURTHER READING
Ker, Neil Ripley, A. J. Piper, and Ian Campbell Cunning-
ham. Medieval Manuscripts in British Libraries. Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2002.
British Library Catalogue of Illuminated Manuscripts. Avail-
able online. URL: http://www.bl.ukcatalogues/illuminat-
edmanuscripts/welcome.htm.
MARIE DE FRANCE (late 12th century) All
we know of Marie de France is that her name was
Marie, that she came from France, as she self-identi-
fi es—“Marie ai nun, si sui de France” (My name is
Marie, I am from France)—and she wrote in ANGLO-
NORMAN for the enjoyment of the French-speaking
English court. Marie was one of the few well-known
female authors of the Middle Ages. She is best known
as the author of 12 short narrative ROMANCEs, also
known as lais (LAYs): “BISCLAVRET” (The Werewolf),
“Chaitivel,” “CHEVREFOIL” (The Honeysuckle), “Les
Deux Amanz,” “ELIDUC,” “Equitan,” “Le Fresne” (The
Ash Tree), “GUIGEMAR,” “LANVAL,” “LAÜSTIC” (The Night-
ingale), “Milun,” and “Yonec.” Her other texts include
103 FABLEs, translated from Henry Beauclerc under the
titles of Ysopet, the Purgatoire de St. Patrice, and the
recently attributed La Vie Seinte Audree. The lais, their
prologue, and Ysopet, are preserved collectively in a
mid-13th-century manuscript, MS Harley 978, though
various lais appear in other manuscripts as well.
Establishing an identity for Marie is complicated
and uncertain. Scholars have suggested a number of
candidates: Marie, abbess of Shaftesbury; Marie, count-
ess of Boulogne, daughter of King Stephen of England
and Matilda of Boulogne; Marie, daughter of Waleran
II, count of Meulan; and Marie, abbess of Reading.
However, none of these candidates has been univer-
sally accepted.
Marie’s works are important contributions both to
ARTHURIAN LITERATURE and to the romance tradition, as
well as to the establishment of the VERNACULAR. While
her work is not particularly feminist, her writing does
provide a medieval feminine perspective missing from
other popular literature of the time.
See also ANGLO-NORMAN POETRY.FURTHER READING
Barban, Judith Clark, and June Hall McCash, eds. The Life of
Saint Audrey: A Text by Marie De France. Jefferson, N.C.:
McFarland, 2006.
Burgess, Glyn S. The Lais of Marie de France: Text and Con-
text. Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press, 1987.
Marechal, Chantal A, ed. The Reception and Transmission of
the Works of Marie De France, 1774–1974. Lewiston, N.Y.:
Edwin Mellen, 2003.
Shoaf, Judith, trans. “The Lais of Marie de France.” Univer-
sity of Florida, Gainesville. Available online. URL: http://
web.english.ufl .edu/exemplaria/intro.html. Downloaded
on January 7, 2007.
Susannah Mary Chewning264 MARIE DE FRANCE