The varied assortment of the lyrics includes the most
concentrated poetry of the period, and brevity intensi-
fi es the emotions expressed in poems such as “FOWELES
IN THE FRITH” and “Western Wind” and the compres-
sion of the lines intensifi es their ambiguities. Although
some works appear to be slight, this impression is
deceptive, since much meaning may be packed within
a few lines. For example, the rich implications of its
imagery and sophisticated structure belie the apparent
artlessness of “I Sing of a Maiden,” and even the brief-
est lyrics repay close study. The most enduring of all
the Middle English lyrics is “Thirty dayes hath Novem-
ber,” one of many mnemonic short poems which
shaped and preserved worldly information, religious
doctrine, and social mores and so infl uenced and
enforced attitudes in an era when many people could
not read.
General anthologies of medieval poems usually
include lyrics of love written to earthly mistresses and
lyrics to the Virgin Mary (often in very similar terms),
religious meditations, and carols such as “ADAM LAY
BOUND” and “BRING US IN GOOD ALE.” Specialized col-
lections show more of the range of the style and mate-
rial found in these works. Seeking to study medieval
lyrics and ballads may seem to mean consulting forbid-
ding texts with words that are diffi cult to understand.
It is possible, though, to begin with editions in stan-
dardized form, to avoid the problem of varying dia-
lects; many modern editions also give helpful notes on
the same page as the text. Familiarity with these more
encouraging forms will show that diffi culties are more
apparent than real, and a reader is soon prepared to
consult and enjoy collections such as Child’s, Brown’s,
and Robbin’s, which use original dialects, allowing us
contact with the literature, customs, faith, joys, and
sorrows of those who spoke our language in the past
and the tales they treasured.
See also BALLAD, REVERDIE, VIRGIN LYRICS.
FURTHER READING
Brook, G. L., ed. The Harley Lyrics: The Middle English Lyrics
of MS Harley 2253. 4th ed. Manchester, U.K.: Manchester
University Press, 1968.
Buchan, David. The Ballad and the Folk. London: Routledge,
1972.
Child, Francis James, ed. The English and Scottish Popular
Ballads. 5 vols. Boston: Houghton, 1882–98. Reprint,
New York: Dover, 1965.
Davies, R. T., ed. Medieval English Lyrics: A Critical Anthol-
ogy. Evanston, Ill.: Northwestern University Press, 1964.
Fowler, David C. A Literary History of the Popular Ballad.
Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1968.
Rosemary GreentreeMIDDLE ENGLISH POETRY There were
two traditions that infl uenced the poetry of the Middle
English period, which lasted roughly from the time of
the NORMAN CONQUEST in 1066 to around 1500, both
of which had a major impact on the poetry that would
follow. The fi rst tradition came from ANGLO-SAXON
POETRY, a hard-driving and alliterative style that con-
sisted of no rhyme scheme or accentual structure, only
stressing alliterative beats (see ALLITERATION). The sec-
ond tradition came from French poetry, which con-
tained rhymes, COUPLETs, STANZAs, and a fi xed number
of syllables (as opposed to a fi xed number of stressed
syllables found in Anglo-Saxon poetry). Thus, from
these two infl uences, Middle English poetry began as
poetry that should be heard, not read quietly alone,
and it grew chiefl y in the 13th century as English began
to overtake French as the dominant language in all lev-
els of society.
From its divergent beginnings, Middle English
poetry blossomed, branching into a number of sub-
genres, including lyric poetry, ROMANCEs, DREAM VISIONs
and allegorical poetry, FABLIAU and burlesque, and
verse history. However, while a variety of genres arose
within Middle English poetry, it remains important to
note that not every poem can be placed neatly into one
specifi c genre. In some cases, poems exhibit character-
istics of more than one genre, while others, such as
lyric poetry, fi t fairly nicely in one category. And while
scholars tend to classify Middle English poetry into
two general periods—the early Middle English period
and 14th-century poetry—these lines are often crossed
as well.
Generally speaking, we can outline the varieties of
poetry appearing in the Middle English period that cul-
minate in the poetry of GEOFFREY CHAUCER. During the
early period, lyric poetry arose. There are two basic272 MIDDLE ENGLISH POETRY