takes in trust / Our youth, our joys, and all we have”
(ll. 31–32). The conclusion is seemingly inevitable as
Time, “When we have wandered all our ways / Shuts
up the story of our days” (ll. 35–36). It is a grim and
seemingly inescapable ending to what starts as a cheer-
ful, celebratory love compliment.
See also RALEIGH, SIR WALTER.
Gary Waller
NEW WORLD The notion of a “New World”
loomed large in the medieval and early modern imagi-
nation. As represented in works such as John Mandev-
ille’s Travels and Marco Polo’s Travels, notions of
people with mysterious bodies and unusual tribal ritu-
als shaped the expectations of early modern explorers
and writers. Columbus, having read the work of Marco
Polo, knew what he should expect when he reached
the land of India. For the early modern writer, the New
World represented an opportunity to begin civilization
anew. Some even believed in the New World that they
would fi nd the Old World, a kind of Eden-like state. In
his fi rst encounters with indigenous peoples, Christo-
pher Columbus recalled images of the naked Adam
and Eve in the Garden of Eden. In a highly romanti-
cized view of this New World, others longed for a
return to this setting.
The PASTORAL celebrates the simplicity of this New
World, but it is in the exploration narratives produced
by Spanish, Italian, Portuguese, French, and English
discoverers that the myth of the New World was born.
Cultural explorations, based on comparisons with Euro-
pean practices, dominate the texts. SIR WALTER RALEIGH’s
Discovery of Guiana (1595) details his fi ndings in the
New World in terms the monarchy wanted to hear.
Poems also celebrated the New World. For instance,
MICHAEL DRAYTON wrote “Ode to the Virginian Voyage”
(1606) using many of the standard images and ideolo-
gies, providing impetus for further explorations. In gen-
eral, poems of this ilk celebrate the possibilities the New
World offered, both fi nancially and politically.
FURTHER READING
Greenblatt, Stephen J. Marvelous Possessions: The Wonders
of the New World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press,
1991.
Hadfi eld, Andrew. Literature, Travel, and Colonial Writing in
the English Renaissance 1545–1625. Oxford: Oxford Uni-
versity Press, 1998.
Daniel F. Pigg“NIGHTINGALE, THE” (“PHILOMELA”)
SIR PHILIP SIDNEY (1595) “The Nightingale,” widely
considered one of the best of SIR PHILIP SIDNEY’s short
poems, appears in the second part of his DEFENSE OF
POESY. It is based on a popular song of the time, “Non
Credo Gia Che Piu Infelice Amante.” Also known by
the title “Philomela,” the poem is based on the story of
Philomela in book 6 of OVID’s Metamorphoses. Philomela
and Procne were the daughters of King Pandion of
Attica. Procne married Tereus of Thrace, though he
lusted after Philomela. Eventually, Tereus raped
Philomela and cut out her tongue to silence her. She,
however, wove the story into a tapestry that she sent to
her sister. Procne then killed her son and served him
for dinner to Tereus. The women fl ed, pursued by
Tereus, but the gods turned them all into birds: Procne
became a nightingale, Philomela a swallow, and Tereus
a hoopoe.
The richness of the rhyme in this poem is indicative
of its basis on an Italian piece, as are the musicality and
continuity of the phrases. The innovation in this piece
lies in Sidney’s comparison of himself to Philomela as
he explores sexual dynamics, voice, self-expression,
and the English tradition of male stoicism. This is
accomplished through both words and rhythm.
Sidney establishes the mood instantly: “The nightin-
gale, as soon as April bringeth / Unto her rested sense a
perfect waking... / Sings out her woes” (ll. 1–4). April
is a month of juxtapositions: Winter has ended and
summer is approaching; destructive rain falls alongside
generative sunshine; life is beginning even as some
ends. Similarly, Philomela’s rape features juxtaposi-
tions, too—death of the girl and birth of the woman;
end of innocence and beginning of experience—as
demonstrated: “Her throat in tunes expresseth / What
grief her breast oppresseth” (ll. 6–7). Acknowledging
the terrible act that has led to this moment—“For
Tereus’ force on her chaste will prevailing” (l. 8)—Sid-
ney then promptly inverts the tale. The audience
should not feel pity for Philomela; rather, they should288 NEW WORLD