Old English is a typical West Germanic language.
Nouns and adjectives have three numbers, although
dual and plural are only distinguished in the fi rst and
second person singular pronouns and in a special form
of the adjective (comparative and superlative). They
show three grammatical “genders,” conventionally des-
ignated masculine, feminine, and neuter and are
infl ected in four cases, nominative (subject), accusative
(direct object), genitive (possessive), and dative (indi-
rect object), although the masculine and neuter
demonstrative article preserves the form of a fi fth case,
the instrumental (“by means of”).
The verb system is simplistic. There are three persons
and only two formal tenses, present and past. There are
“strong” verbs, which show predictable vocalic patterns
(known as ablaut—vowel changes) in the present and
past tenses and the past participle. “Weak” verbs are a
Germanic innovation, and they make their past tense by
means of a dental suffi x, d or t.
The settlers brought with them a writing system, the
24 item runic alphabet (FUTHARK), which they expanded
to up to 33 characters, although its use can hardly have
been very widespread. After Christianity began to
spread, a vibrant monastic culture developed in Nor-
thumbria under Irish infl uence in the early seventh
century that was soon involved in the production of
manuscript materials both in Latin and the vernacular.
This later was written in the Insular script-system used
by the Irish, modifi ed by the introduction of characters
from the runic alphabet to accommodate English
sounds not in Irish or Latin.
Most of the surviving material in Old English post-
dates the reign of King ALFRED THE GREAT and is written
in a West-Saxon dialect. Even though this language is
called Old English, it is not the direct ancestor of Mod-
ern English, which derives from an Anglian dialect
(South-East Midland) that has been heavily infl uenced
by Old Norse.
See also ALLITERATION, ANGLO-SAXON POETRY.
FURTHER READING
Hogg, Richard M., ed. The Cambridge History of the English
Language. Vol. 1, The Beginnings to 1066. Cambridge:
Cambridge University Press, 1992.
Nielsen, Hans Frede. The Continental Backgrounds of English
and Its Insular Development until 1154. North-Western
European Language Evolution, Supplement 10. Odense,
Denmark: Odense University Press, 1998.
Townend, Matthew. Language and History in Viking Age Eng-
land: Linguistic Relations between Speakers of Old Norse and
Old English. Studies in the Early Middle Ages, 6. Turn-
hout, Belgium: Brepols, 2002.
Shaun F. D. Hughes“OLD MAN’S PRAYER, AN” (14th century)
“An Old Man’s Prayer” is a poignant poem of 107 lines
presenting an elderly sinner’s refl ections upon life and
mortality in the face of approaching death. The piece
can be considered “lyrical” in the sense that the writer
is at pains to create and sustain the voice of the speaker.
As he discloses the nature of his transgressions, the
reader gains a strong sense of his remorse and inner
torment.
“An Old Man’s Prayer” begins with a heartfelt appeal
to the “High Lord” whose laws the speaker has abused.
He asks to be absolved of his sins, claiming that his
cheeks are now wet with tears. The Old Man recalls
how he once rode proudly upon a steed but must now
lean upon a walking cane, assailed by the twin penal-
ties of “euel ant elde” (“evil and old age,” l. 46). The
seventh STANZA reveals how he has succumbed to each
of the SEVEN DEADLY SINS: “Lecherie” has been his mis-
tress, “Lyer” his translator, and so forth.
In the 11th stanza, the speaker directly addresses
death, lamenting that his body must fade like a fl ower
(l. 86). His prayer increasingly has the feel of a memento
mori (reminder of death); however, there is optimism
as the speaker determines to approach the Lord beg-
ging for salvation.
The text is broadly demonstrative of the medieval
timor mortis, or the fear of death, associated with CON-
TEMPT FOR THE WORLD. It is also notable for its ALLITERA-
TION and complex vocabulary, especially where the
speaker recalls the insults that have been heaped upon
him. In his time, the Old Man has been branded a
“fullefl et” (l. 15; space waster) and a “waynoun way-
teglede” (l. 16; good-for-nothing).
FURTHER READING
Brook, G. L., ed. The Harley Lyrics. Manchester, U.K.: Man-
chester University Press, 1940.298 “OLD MAN’S PRAYER, AN”