9), and in the third stanza, he reinforces his steadfast-
ness, as he would not leave “Nother for payn nor smart”
(l. 16). These descriptions increase the undignifi ed,
self-piteous subject positioning of the speaker, and
both conclude with the question and suggested
response for the silent mistress. There is no attempt at
psychological introspection here—no justifi cation for
the love of the mistress—only a helpless servant-
speaker in the face of his mistress.
The fourth stanza refocuses the poem’s attention on
the mistress and her lack of pity for the abject lover.
The cruel mistress is given all the power, while the
speaker places himself in a position of utter impotence,
again offering the refused suggested response of “Say
nay, Say nay!” (l. 24). Introspectively, Wyatt has estab-
lished the utter undesirability of being the courtly
lover.
See also “THEY FLEE FROM ME.”
Andrew Bretz
ANEIRIN See Y GODODDIN.
ANGLO-NORMAN Anglo-Norman is the
French dialect that took root among the cultured
classes in England after the NORMAN CONQUEST and
lasted in various forms until the mid-15th century. The
term is also used to describe texts written in French
during the same period for English patrons or by
authors in England. In 1066, William the Conqueror—
then duke of Normandy—invaded England and suc-
cessfully claimed its throne. As Normans increasingly
replaced Anglo-Saxons in powerful institutional posi-
tions, French became the language of politics and of
the elite. Over time, Anglo-Norman steadily replaced
Latin for legal, clerical, commercial, and administrative
purposes. It was also spoken at the royal court. Conse-
quently, cultured English people sought to learn the
language because of its newfound prestige and practi-
cality.
There is some debate about the extent to which
Anglo-Norman was spoken or understood by the gen-
eral public, but the current scholarly consensus holds
that most of the population during these years spoke
only English. Nevertheless, since the French dialect
was considered far more refi ned than English, Anglo-
Norman quickly became the preferred VERNACULAR of
poets and clerics. The new dialect was embraced as a
literary language and produced a signifi cant and last-
ing impact. By the late 14th century, English had
absorbed about 10,000 French words into the lan-
guage, many of which endure.
After a few centuries of use, Anglo-Norman lost lin-
guistic ground in England. In 1337, the English king
Edward III (reigned 1327–77) attempted to claim the
recently vacated French throne and provoked the HUN-
DRED YEARS WAR (1337–1453). The diplomacy engen-
dered by the confl ict bolstered the prestige of continental
French, which began to take the place of the less stan-
dardized Anglo-Norman. As a literary language, how-
ever, Anglo-Norman was almost entirely replaced by
English by the end of the 14th century. Henry IV (reigned
1399–1413), the fi rst of the Lancastrian kings, became
the fi rst monarch in over 300 years to make English the
predominant language at court. By the middle of the
15th century, most of the upper echelons of English soci-
ety had rejected the French dialect. Anglo-Norman even-
tually disappeared from England altogether, but it left
permanent traces in the English language.
See also ANGLO-NORMAN POETRY.
FURTHER READING
Calin, William. The French Tradition and the Literature of
Medieval England. Toronto, Buffalo, and London: Univer-
sity of Toronto Press, 1994.
Crane, Susan. “Anglo-Norman Cultures in England.” In The
Cambridge History of Medieval English Literature, edited by
David Wallace, 35–60. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1999.
Anne SaloANGLO-NORMAN POETRY After the NOR-
MAN CONQUEST, William the Conqueror fi lled his court
with advisers from home, and the French dialect ANGLO-
NORMAN became the court, administrative, and literary
language of England. Critics have suggested that many
of the highborn Normans who immigrated to England
over the next three centuries may have felt the need to
distinguish themselves from their Norman siblings still
living on the continent, and that, as a consequence of
their PATRONAGE, CHRONICLEs, ROMANCEs, and hagiogra-
phies (see HAGIOGRAPHY)—all of which tend to ennoble24 ANEIRIN