There is some debate as to how much infl uence the
Franciscan and Dominican orders had on the origins of
lyrics to Mary. Some scholars suggest that the earliest
lyrics were actually verse translations of basic Latin
prayers, such as the “Ave Maria.” Tropes such as the
Joys and Sorrows of the Virgin have been traced back
to the Meditationes of John of Fécamp (1078), and in
the mid-12th century St. Godric composed his well-
known lyrics to the Virgin, which at one time earned
him the title of the “fi rst English lyricist.” In the 12th
and 13th centuries, the Franciscans and Cistercians
certainly contributed to the genre’s popularity.
Virgin lyrics are found in Latin and the VERNACULAR,
as well as a combination of both, often with the REFRAIN
written in Latin. Some lyrics draw upon scriptural and
liturgical themes and may have been used in homilies
or sermons, while others, based on the manuscript’s
context, seem to have been used for contemplation and
mystical purposes.
The imagery, allusions, and titles used in lyrics to
describe Mary are remarkably conventional. They often
draw from the natural world and from Old Testament
biblical images that the Christian church reads as “pre-
fi gurations” of Mary and Christ’s birth. For example,
the Virgin is accompanied by or aligned with the dawn,
a dove, a rose without thorns, a lily among thorns, a
fountain, or a sealed door or garden. The lyric “Marye,
mayde mylde and fre” is particularly rich in BIBLICAL
ALLUSIONS, with Mary as the Burning Bush, as dew, and
as other common prefi gurations. The epithets most
frequently used for the Virgin refer to her role as maid,
mother, queen, or, at times, all of these at once.
Lyrics from the 12th and 13th centuries are marked
by what has been called a “restrained” style. They seem
didactic, fashioned to be used as guides for devotion.
This period refl ects an emphasis on Mary as merciful
mediator. Audiences would have found in Mary a sym-
pathetic mother to whom they could plead for inter-
cession with her Son the Judge. Such lyrics will often
feature legalistic imagery.
During this period, which saw an increase in affec-
tive (emotional) piety, we also fi nd lyricists describing
events such as the Crucifi xion from Mary’s perspective.
Affective piety encouraged empathy in the believer and
focused on Christ’s manhood rather than his divinity.
Mary’s point of view both allows the audience to wit-
ness divine events through human eyes and encour-
ages identifi cation between the audience member and
Mary. These lyrics use homely and tender imagery, as
in the lyric “Stond wel modor under rode.”
In the 14th and 15th centuries, the lyrics take on
courtly language, and they feature Mary as a ROMANCE
heroine, where often sin is a disease and Mary is the
physician. Indeed, the romance genre and the language
of religious devotion infl uence one another so heavily
that it is sometimes diffi cult to classify a particular lyric
as secular (to a maiden) or religious (to Mary). “MAIDEN
IN THE MOR LAY” and “I SING OF A MAIDEN” are two pop-
ular examples of such ambiguous lyrics. The 14th cen-
tury also saw lyrics in which Mary is cast as a model of
perfect courtesy: a meek, mild, and dutiful maiden to
be imitated by medieval women.
The lyrics of the 15th century and later contrast the
“restrained” style of the earlier works as they express
devotion rather than instruct. These lyrics do not
encourage identifi cation with Mary as mother and maid
but express admiration for Mary as queen of heaven.
Rather than featuring the Nativity and Crucifi xion as
earthly narrative foci, these later lyrics describe Mary’s
heavenly Assumption and coronation. There is an aes-
thetic self-consciousness among these later lyrics, which
are marked by an ornate, aureate style (see AUREATION).
This is particularly true of those with named authors, as
it was believed that the more elaborate the lyric, the
more lavish the praise it would send to Mary.
While there seems to be great variation over time in
this genre, lyrics to the Virgin are conventional enough
that thematic categories can be established, including:
the Annunciation, the Nativity, Mary at the foot of the
Cross, the Assumption and Mary as Queen of Heaven,
Mary Mediatrix and penitential poems, and Medita-
tions of the Joys of Mary.
See also “CHERRY-TREE CAROL, THE”; “IN PRAISE OF
MARY”; MIDDLE ENGLISH LYRICS AND BALLADS.
FURTHER READING
Dronke, Peter. The Medieval Lyric. 3rd ed. Suffolk: D.S.
Brewer, 1996.
Saupe, Karen. Middle English Marian Lyrics. Kalamazoo:
Medieval Institute Publications, Western Michigan Uni-
versity, 1998.VIRGIN LYRICS 451