introDuCtion vlatin, anglo-Norman, Welsh, middle Scots, and other
languages. i hope, then, that i can be forgiven the term
British, especially in regards to the multilingual fluidity
of the medieval era alongside a fervent desire not to
make any political gaffes.
entries cover the poems and poets most often
taught in high school and college classrooms and the
concepts most important to understanding the poetry
of the period. The approach throughout is to combine
current critical approaches with more traditional meth-
ods, providing a balanced framework and presenting
works in the context of their time. entries are self-con-
tained and relatively jargon-free. although primarily
aimed at a student audience, this book is also designed
to benefit teachers, librarians, and general readers who
love poetry.
entries on individual poems provide an overview
or summary of the text and a discussion of the style
or genre of the work. Difficult terms are glossed,
and historical and literary context is provided where
appropriate and necessary. The standard or most com-
mon interpretation of the work is usually presented,
in addition to an overview of critical debates and cur-
rent trends. Biographical entries provide information
about the author’s life and work in general. historical
entries cover significant events relevant to the creation,
distribution, and inspiration of pre-1600 poetry (e.g.,
the Norman conquest). Thematic entries provide
background discussion on important areas, such as the
classical tradition, while entries on poetic terms impor-
tant to the period clarify entry content and provide
relevant examples drawn from works included in vol-
ume. There are a few non-British writers, such as Ovid
and Virgil, included if they had a profound impact on
British poetry. The appendix includes a bibliography
and a brief glossary of general poetic terms.
EDitoriaL ConvEntions
many scholars have contributed to this encyclopedia,
but i strove to achieve conformity of content and
style, if not complete uniformity. all entries feature the
contributor’s name at the end of the entry. unsigned
entries were written by the volume editor.
For the most part, spelling has been regularized to
modern standards: for example, the poets’ names are
given as Sidney (not Sydney) and Spenser (not Spencer)
consistently throughout the volume. however, if the
standard medieval or early modern spelling of a work
does not interfere with understanding, it has usually
been retained (e.g., Spenser’s poem is The Shepheard’s
Calender, not The Shepherd’s Calender).
Some of the finest poetry of the period is in the form
of the sonnet, and many sonnets appeared as part of
larger works called sonnet sequences. in this volume,
major sonnet sequences, such as Sidney’s Astrophil
and Stella, are discussed generally in overview entries
under the title of the sequence, with individual cover-
age of the most commonly read and important sonnets
given in subsections just below the overview entry.
(Shakespeare’s untitled sequence appears under the
editorially given name Shakespeare’s Sonnets.) This same
convention holds true for other longer works that are
frequently excerpted (e.g., Piers Plowman). There are
two major exceptions to this practice. The individual
“tales” of chaucer’s Canterbury Tales appear as unique
entries, alphabetized under the name of their titles (for
example, “The Pardoner’s Tale” appears under P), as
do the individual lays (lais) in marie de France’s collec-
tion. These works are often taught as individual pieces
rather than as part of a greater whole, and it seemed
more useful to categorize them as such in this book.
as well, since the prologues and epilogues are usually
taught with each individual canterbury Tale, those
discussions are assumed throughout.
unless otherwise indicated, the standard editions
for works are used. The Riverside Chaucer (houghton-
mifflin, 1987) and The Riverside Shakespeare (houghton-
mifflin, 1997) can be assumed for all relevant entries.
For entries on major sonnet sequences and other
longer works, the main editions and critical works
used for each entry on a particular sonnet appear at
the end of the overview entry. any further reading lists
appearing in individual sonnet entries reflect addi-
tional sources.
Where necessary, dates are written as b.c.e. (Before
the common era) or c.e. (common era). Derogatory
terminology (e.g., pagan instead of pre-Christian or non-
Christian) and disparaging nicknames (e.g., “Bloody
mary” Tudor) are not used. The terms Renaissance and
early modern are used interchangeably throughout this