Exploring the Police Personality 65of substance abuse risk and stress-related physical complaints. In addition, they
concluded that this risk increases with officers' time in service. Beutler et al. (1998;
Beutler, Storm, Kirkish, Scogan, & Gaines, 1985) maintain that overall this group
is guarded and will be hesitant to seek mental health treatment. Russell and Beige!
(1982) report that the alcoholism and suicide rates among police officers surpass by
far those of the general population, suggesting the impact of police work on these
individuals.
In a study undertaken by Saathoff and Buckman (1990), the most common
primary diagnosis among 26 state police officers who requested or were referred
to psychiatric services by their department was adjustment disorder, followed by
substance abuse and then personality disorder. The majority of officers believed that
there was a stigma attached to receiving mental health services. Despite infrequent
occurrences, Saathoff and Buckman stress that the extremes of violence, homicide,
and suicide must be taken into consideration with police officers, as they carry guns
in the course of their duties.
Some researchers believe that the negative behavior displayed by some officers is
related to a personality style that officers have when they join the force. However,
other researchers maintain that incidents like police brutality stem from a belief
system that forms as they begin to feel betrayed by the system and lose respect for
the law (Graves, 1996). These researchers explain that officers see the worst of so-
ciety on a daily basis and begin to lose faith in others, trust only other officers, and
suffer "social estrangement." Some researchers contend that policemen develop a
survival personality defined by rigidity, increased personal restriction, and cynicism
(Kroes, 1976; Saathoff & Buckman, 1990). Most of the research on police cynicism
occurred in the late 1960s and mid-1970s (Graves, 1996). Cynicism is defined as a
distrust in human beings and their intentions. According to Graves, "... cynicism
is the antithesis of idealism, truth, and justice—the very virtues that law enforce-
ment officers swear to uphold" (p. 16). He contends that cynicism is the precursor
to emotional problems that lead to misconduct, brutality, and possibly corrup-
tion. In addition, he stresses the negative impact on officer productivity, morale,
community relations, and even the relationship that the officer has with his own
family.
Researchers have found that cynicism is more prevalent in large urban police de-
partments, particularly with college-educated, lower ranking officers, during their
first 10 years of service (Graves, 1996). Graves suggests that the heavy demands of law
enforcement lead to these incidents of burnout, stress, and cynicism. He contends
that these factors also lead to unhealthy emotional responses such as a withdrawal
from society and an antipathy to idealism or a loss of respect for law and society.
Toch (1992) explains that there are "violent men" among the ranks of po-
lice officers. He further adds that while these men have certain fears, insecuri-
ties, and self-centered perspectives with which they enter the force, their brutal-
ity is often protected by a code of mutual support among officers. According to
Toch: