78 5 Police and Law Enforcement—Civil r-orensicsillustrated in current training programs. Woodhull (1993) notes that police offi-
cers "undergo more intense training than perhaps any other professionals" (p. 4),
Officers are extensively trained in the use of firearms and subsequently required to
demonstrate proficiency in firearm use. Most officers, however, will rarely, if ever,
use their weapons in the line of duty. In contrast, officers will inevitably spend most
of their time communicating, but are not as extensively trained in such skills. This
contradiction was alluded to over 2000 years ago by Aristotle, who claimed that
people should not train themselves in fist-and-weapon tactics while neglecting to
train themselves in verbal tactics (Woodhull, 1993). As communication character-
izes the human being, effective communication can develop understanding, while
ineffective communication can result in violence (Woodhull, 1993). Thus, even
before the day of the modern police officer, the importance of communication
versus physical tactics in human encounters was well understood. Given the extent
of communication in a police officer's job, and the significance of effective skills,
we need to examine some of the reasons why conflict occurs between police and
citizens.
The police are asked to maintain public order, including defusing volatile or
potentially volatile situations. As noted earlier, these situations may involve criminal,
disorderly, intoxicated, and/or mentally ill citizens; individuals who are angry about
more general police practices or motivated by political views; and a host of other
situations. The instability of citizens in these encounters creates significant risk to the
officers, the citizen, and the bystanders (L. Wrightsman, Nietzel, & Fortune, 1994).
Often, these disputes between police officers and the public exist because of differing
opinions about the duties of police officers. The role of police officers is an area
where there has been much disagreement among scholars, the public, and the police.
There is general agreement that the police officer's job consists of multiple duties,
including situations where no crime has occurred. In addition to law enforcement
practices (crime detection, making arrests, questioning individuals about criminal
activity; etc.), the police must concern themselves with keeping peace, maintaining
order, and servicing the public in general. While the disagreement often revolves
around exactly what duties the police are responsible for, there is little debate that
the job includes dealing with many different types of problems (Brooks, 1997).
Public encounters may result in conflict when the officer's perception of his
or her duties or role differs from the citizen's perception (Bennett & Hess, 1996).
A prime example is the otherwise upstanding citizen who is cited or ticketed for
a traffic violation and replies, "Why are you bothering me when there are real
criminals running around on the streets... Don't you have anything better to do
with your time?" Such complaints are common in police work and often open
the door for conflict. Once one understands the motivating factors behind conflict
situations, the next step is to understand the other side. In other words, what
are some basic tactics of conflict resolution and how are they employed by police
officers?