TRACT INFECTION (UTI) during early childhood.
Uncircumcised men are more likely to acquire
infections such as balanitis and perhaps SEXUALLY
TRANSMITTED DISEASES(STDS) such as HUMAN PAPILLO-
MAVIRUS(HPV) and HIV/AIDS. Circumcision does not
provide protection against such infections, how-
ever.
See also CANCER OF THE PENIS; CULTURAL AND ETH-
NIC HEALTH CARE PERSPECTIVES; SURGERY BENEFIT AND
RISK ASSESSMENT.
clitoris An organ of the female GENITALIA, located
at and partially beneath the junction of the upper
folds of the labia. Made of erectile tissue and
nerves, the clitoris arises from the same embry-
onic cells as the male PENISand, though much
smaller, contains parallel structures. Two fused
corpora cavernosa (spongy, tubelike channels)
form the body of the clitoris, which is about an
inch long. During sexual arousal the corpora cav-
ernosa engorge with BLOODand cause the clitoris
to enlarge and become erect. At the end of the cli-
toris is a small bulb of highly sensitive NERVEtis-
sue, the glans. A thin sheath, the prepuce
(analgous to the male foreskin), covers the clitoral
glans except during sexual stimulation when it
retracts to expose the glans. The only known pur-
pose of the clitoris is sexual stimulation, which
increases vaginal lubrication and other physiologic
changes to facilitate penetration during SEXUAL
INTERCOURSE.
See also ERECTION; GENITAL TRAUMA; SEXUALITY.
colposcopy A diagnostic procedure in which the
gynecologist examines a woman’s external GENI-
TALIAand the interior VAGINAusing a lighted mag-
nifying instrument called a colposcope. The
gynecologist may also visualize the CERVIXthough
the colposcope remains outside the vagina. The
colposcope allows the gynecologist to more closely
examine the surface of the genital tissues when a
PELVIC EXAMINATIONor a PAP TESTreveals possible
abnormalities. Colposcopy helps the gynecologist
determine whether biopsy (removing a small sam-
ple of tissue) or another diagnostic procedure is
necessary. The gynecologist performs colposcopy
as an office procedure that requires no special
preparation or anesthetic. Most women find col-
poscopy no more uncomfortable than a routine
PELVIC EXAMINATIONthough any associated biopsy
may cause minor discomfort and slight bleeding
for a day or two after the biopsy. There are no
aftereffects or risks for complication with col-
poscopy alone.
See also HYSTEROSCOPY.conception The culmination of fertilization
(union of a SPERMand an ovum) and implantation
of the resulting blastocyst into the endometrium
(lining of the UTERUS). Conception marks the onset
of PREGNANCY.
Numerous factors, internal and external, influ-
ence conception. Internal factors include a
woman’s HORMONElevels and OVULATIONpatterns,
the viability of the man’s sperm, and circum-
stances that occlude the FALLOPIAN TUBESto keep
sperm and ovum from meeting, such as scarring
from PELVIC INFLAMMATORY DISEASE(PID). External
factors that influence conception include cigarette
smoking and birth control methods intended to
block conception, such as condoms, the intrauter-
ine device, and oral contraceptives (birth control
pills).
Health conditions such as ENDOMETRIOSIS and
UTERINE FIBROIDSmay prevent the pregnancy from
proceeding after implantation takes place, result-
ing in early spontaneous ABORTION (commonly
called miscarriage) often before the woman real-
izes she has conceived.
See also ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGY(ART);
CONTRACEPTION; FAMILY PLANNING; FERTILITY; INFERTIL-
ITY; OVA; ZYGOTE.contraception Any of various methods, also
called birth control, intended to prevent
PREGNANCY. Contraception allows sexually active
women and their partners to prevent as well as
plan pregnancies.
The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA)
approved the first oral contraceptive in 1960. Thir-
teen years later the US Supreme Court legalized
elective ABORTION. Though they remain controver-
sial even today, these two events were pivotal in
the arena of reproductive choice and planning
because they were the first methods that placed
contraception in the control of women. Now,
nearly all forms of contraception are for the
woman’s use.264 The Reproductive System