Specific symptoms of certain cancers that are
worthy of a doctor’s assessment include
- prolonged COUGH, which may suggest laryngeal
cancer or LUNG CANCER - a wound or sore that does not heal, which may
suggest SKIN CANCER - a change in bowel habits or rectal bleeding,
which may suggest COLORECTAL CANCER - a lump in the BREASTor testicle, which may
suggest BREAST CANCERor TESTICULAR CANCER - extended NAUSEA, VOMITING, or DIARRHEAmay
suggest ESOPHAGEAL CANCER, STOMACH CANCER,
PANCREATIC CANCER, or colorectal cancer
See also BREAST SELF-EXAMINATION; CANCER PRE-
VENTION; DIAGNOSING CANCER; LYMPH NODE; TESTICULAR
SELF-EXAMINATION.
smoking and cancer Cigarette smoking is the
leading cause of numerous types of cancer. Ciga-
rette smoke contains more than 4,000 chemicals,
none of which is beneficial to health and about 60
of which are known carcinogens (cancer-causing
substances). Among the key carcinogens in ciga-
rette smoke are formaldehyde, aromatic amines,
arsenic, chromium, phenols, tar, and vinyl chlo-
ride.
Though LUNG CANCERis currently the leading
cause of death from cancer in the United States,
health experts believe it is also the most preventa-
ble cancer because of smoking’s role in its devel-
opment. Cigarette smoking accounts for 85
percent of the 172,500 people in whom doctors
diagnose lung cancer each year. It also accounts
for significant percentages ofBREAST CANCER, BLAD-
DER CANCER, PROSTATE CANCER, STOMACH CANCER, PAN-
CREATIC CANCER, ENDOMETRIAL CANCER(cancer of the
UTERUS), ESOPHAGEAL CANCER, oral cancer (cancer of
the MOUTHand lips), laryngeal cancer (cancer of
the THROAT), and acute myeloid LEUKEMIA(AML).
Cigarette smoking continues to decline among
Americans, with only one in four men and one in
five women now being regular smokers. Half of all
Americans who ever smoked now no longer
smoke. Health experts anticipate a corresponding
decline in smoking-related cancers over the com-
ing decades.
See also ANTISMOKING EFFORTS; CANCER PREVEN-
TION; SMOKING AND CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE (CVD);
SMOKING CESSATION; SMOKING AND HEALTH.staging and grading of cancer The standardized
processes and guidelines for assessing the severity
of cancer after diagnosis. A cancer’s stage and
grade help determine the most effective treatment
options. Though each type of cancer has its own
specific staging and grading protocol, general
methodologies apply to nearly all types of cancer,
except LEUKEMIA.Cancer Staging
The stage of a cancer identifies how contained or
widespread the cancer is. The traditional method of
staging assigns a number to the level of the cancer’s
severity based on the tumor’s location, penetration
into lymph nodes, and spread to adjacent or distant
tissues. The higher the number, the more extensive
the cancer. A stage 0 cancer is small and completely
contained, often in situ (confined to the cells in
which the cancer started). A stage 4 cancer is wide-
spread with multiple tumors distant from the pri-
mary tumor (site where the cancer first started).
Staging criteria vary somewhat among the different
types of cancer.GENERAL CANCER STAGING: TRADITIONAL METHOD
Stage Extent of Cancer
Stage 0 in situ; tumor confined to the cells of its origin
Stage 1 tumor remains localized though has spread
beyond the cells of its origin
Stage 2 tumor has spread to adjacent tissues orlymph
nodes
Stage 3 tumor has spread to adjacent tissues andlymph
nodes or is locally recurrent
Stage 4 multiple tumors distant from the primary tumor;
cancer is recurrentAnother method of tumor staging is the TNM
system in which Trepresents the tumor size, N
represents the involvement of local and regional
lymph nodes, and Mrepresents METASTASISto dis-
tant sites. The TNM system is internationally stan-
dardized and provides more detail about the
cancer’s characteristics than the traditional, or
stage grouping, method. It also allows for more
precise characterization of the cancer. As is the392 Cancer