66 Finance & economics The Economist March 19th 2022
Shenzhen is also home to Yantian port,
one of the world’s busiest. After a covid
outbreak in May last year, it briefly had to
operate at only 30% of its capacity. That
contributed to long queues of ships out at
sea and high towers of containers on the
docks. This time “the shockwaves will be
felt across America...and almost every
where in the world,” warns Johannes
Schlingmeier of Container xChange, a plat
form for leasing containers.
Still, China’s supply chain is some way
from snapping. Foxconn, for example, has
some room for manoeuvre. It has over 40
plants in China and does much of its
iPhone production outside Shenzhen.
March is also not a peak delivery season for
many of the things Shenzhen makes, point
out Helen Qiao of Bank of America and col
leagues. And China’s manufacturers will
go to great lengths to keep production run
ning. In Shanghai, for example, a carparts
maker has asked essential workers to live
and sleep on the factory premises when
conditions allow, according to LatePost, a
Chinese media outlet. Some factories in
Shenzhen will be allowed to operate in this
kind of bubble, too.
The more certain economic threat
posed by the latest outbreak is to Chinese
consumption. The country’s retail sales
had recently shown signs of life: they rose
by 4.9% (adjusted for inflation) in January
and February, compared with the same two
months a year earlier. But Nomura, a bank,
thinks retail sales, in real terms, could
shrink again in the months ahead.
The outbreak has also delayed any re
laxation of China’s zerocovid policy. In re
cent weeks, there had been some signs of a
softening. Prominent publichealth ex
perts had begun to talk about a path to co
C
ryptoinvestorssometimessaythey
have been “rugged” when the devel
opers of a coin vanish, along with the
capital that has been allocated to it,
pulling the rug out from under them.
Foreignexchange reserve managers
might never have expected to recognise
the feeling. But almost as soon as Russia
invaded Ukraine, American and Euro
pean authorities froze the assets of the
Central Bank of Russia. As others fol
lowed, the country’s first line of financial
defence was obliterated. According to the
Russian government, $300bn of its
$630bn in reserves are now unusable.
The managers of the $13.7trn in global
foreignexchange reserves are a conser
vative breed. They care about liquidity
and safety above all else, largely to the
exclusion of profits. Much of their think
ing was shaped by the Asian financial
crisis of 199798, when currencies col
lapsed in the face of huge capital out
flows. The lesson learned was that re
serves needed to be plentiful and liquid.
Watching a big chunk of Russia’s
reserves being made functionally useless
is likely to be just as formative, even for
those who face no immediate prospect of
a terminal rift with the world’s financial
superpowers. That is particularly true for
the State Administration of Foreign
Exchange (safe), the agency in charge of
China’s $3.4trn in reserves. India and
Saudi Arabia, with $632bn and $441bn in
reserves, respectively, may also be pay
ing close attention.
Barry Eichengreen, an economic
historian, has described the choice of the
composition of foreignexchange re
serves as being guided by either a “Mer
cury” or a “Mars” principle. The Mercur
ial approach bases reserves on commer
cial links; the currencies being held are
largely determined by their usefulness
for trade and finance. A Martian strategy
bases the composition more on factors
like security and geopolitical alliances.
Mars seems to be in the ascendant.
Central banks are bound to take into ac
count which countries will and will not
replicate sanctions against them. In 2020
Guan Tao, a former safeofficial now at
Bank of China International, laid out a
range of ways that China could guard
against the risk of sanctions. In extremis,
he suggested that the dollar could stop
being used as the anchor currency for
foreignexchange management and be
replaced by a basket of currencies.
Even that option, which might have
sounded extreme a month ago, now falls
short of what a Martian central bank
would need, given the degree of cooper
ation with American sanctions. There are
few, if any, jurisdictions with large, liquid
capital markets denominated in cur
rencies that are useful in an emergency,
but which do not pose a risk from a sanc
tions perspective. Some worried central
banks might start increasing their hold
ings of yuan assets (which currently make
up less than 3% of the global total). But
that is no solution for China itself.
Why not go back to basics? Gold, the
original reserve asset, is a large liquid
market outside any one jurisdiction’s
control. Researchers at Citigroup, a bank,
estimate that most of the reserves that
Russia can currently marshal are in gold
and the Chinese yuan. Yet the West’s
sanctions are so expansive that they
prohibit many potential buyers from
purchasing the assets Russia has accu
mulated over the years. Even a wouldbe
counterparty in a neutral or friendly
country will think twice about transact
ing with a central bank under sanctions,
if it risks their own access to the finan
cial plumbing of the dollar system.
There has been more adventurous
speculation, too. Zoltan Pozsar of Credit
Suisse, a bank, has suggested that China
sell Treasuries in order to lease ships and
buy up Russian commodities, arguing
that the global monetary system is shift
ing from one backed by government
bonds to one that is backed by commod
ities. Bold as the forecast is, it is also
emblematic of the few conventional
options available to reserve managers.
And that lack of good solutions points
to another drastic approach: that coun
tries limit their use of reserves for their
financial defence altogether. Various
tools of autarky, such as tighter capital
controls, could become more attractive.
Governments also typically rely on re
serves as the last guarantee that they can
service foreigncurrency debts. But if
that guarantee is no longer absolute,
then they are less likely to be comfort
able issuing dollar and eurodenom
inated bonds at all. Private companies
may be prodded to dedollarise, too. If
you don’t invest in the first place, you
won’t be rugged.
Buttonwood With reservations
The new dilemmas of foreign-exchange reserve managers