THINK ABOUT IT
and Tulving showed that memory was better following
deep processing than following shallow processing.- The idea of levels of processing, while influential, suf-
fered from the problem of circularity, because it is dif-
ficult to define depth of processing independently of
memory. - Evidence that encoding influences retrieval includes
research looking at the effect of (a) placing a word in a
complex sentence; (b) forming visual images; (c) linking
words to yourself; (d) generating information (the gen-
eration effect); (e) organizing information; (f) testing (the
testing effect). - Retrieving long-term memories is aided by retrieval cues.
This has been determined by cued recall experiments and
experiments in which participants created retrieval cues
that later helped them retrieve memories. - Retrieval can be increased by matching conditions at
retrieval to conditions that existed at encoding. This is
illustrated by encoding specificity, state-dependent learn-
ing, and transfer-appropriate processing. - The principle of encoding specificity states that we
learn information along with its context. Godden and
Baddeley’s “diving experiment” and Grant’s studying
experiment illustrate the effectiveness of encoding and
retrieving information under the same conditions. - According to the principle of state-dependent learning, a
person’s memory will be better when his or her internal
state during retrieval matches the state during encoding.
Eich’s mood experiment supports this idea. - Transfer-appropriate processing refers to the finding that
memory performance is enhanced when the type of cod-
ing that occurs during acquisition matches the type of
retrieval that occurs during a memory test. The results of
an experiment by Morris support this idea. - Six memory principles that can be applied to studying
are (1) elaborate, (2) generate and test, (3) organize,
(4) take breaks, (5) match learning and testing condi-
tions, and (6) avoid “illusions of learning.” - Research on the physiological basis of memory indicates
that the formation of memories is associated with struc-
tural changes at the synapse. These structural changes are
then translated into enhanced nerve firing, as indicated
by long-term potentiation.- The medial temporal lobe (MTL) is an important brain
area for LTM. The MTL contains the hippocampus and
other structures. - The hippocampus is crucial for forming new LTMs.
Davachi’s fMRI experiment shows that the perirhinal
cortex is involved in recognizing a stimulus as having
been experienced earlier, whereas the hippocampus
has other functions. Other areas involved in memory
include parts of the frontal and parietal lobes, and the
amygdala. - Concussions can cause retrograde amnesia. This retro-
grade amnesia is graded, so that memory loss is greatest
for events that happened closest in time to the trauma.
This indicates that newly formed memories are fragile. - Consolidation transforms new memories into a state in
which they are more resistant to disruption. Synaptic
consolidation occurs at synapses and is rapid. Systems
consolidation involves the reorganization of cortical cir-
cuits and is slower. - The standard model of consolidation proposes that
memory retrieval depends on the hippocampus during
consolidation but that after consolidation is complete,
retrieval involves the cortex and the hippocampus is no
longer involved. - The multiple trace hypothesis states that the hippocam-
pus is involved both when memories are being established
and during the retrieval of remote episodic memories. - There is evidence supporting the standard model, and
also evidence supporting the idea that retrieval of epi-
sodic memories can involve the hippocampus. - Recent research indicates that memories can become
susceptible to disruption when they are reactivated
by retrieval. After reactivation, these memories must
be reconsolidated. This process may be a mechanism
for refining and updating memories. Recent experi-
ments have provided evidence for reconsolidation
in humans and for the usefulness of reconsolidation
therapy in treating conditions such as posttraumatic
stress disorder.
Think ABOUT IT
- Describe an experience in which retrieval cues led you
to remember something. This experience could include
things like returning to a place where your memory was
initially formed, being somewhere that reminds you of an
experience you had in the past, having someone else pro-
vide a “hint” to help you remember something, or read-
ing about something that triggers a memory.
2. How do you study? Which study techniques that you use
should be effective, according to the results of memory
research? How could you improve your study techniques
by taking into account the results of memory research?
(Also see Preface to Students, pages xxix–xxx.)
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