200 • CHAPTER 7 Long-Term Memory: Encoding and Retrieval
If You WANT TO KNOW MORE
- Cognitive changes in normal aging. Cognitive changes
normally occur as people age. Some of these changes
have been related to changes in the brain.
Cabeza, R., Anderson, N. D., Locantore, J. K., & McIntosh,
A. R. (2002). Aging gracefully: Compensatory brain activ-
ity in high-performing older adults. Neuroimage, 17,
1394–1402.Hedden, T., & Gabrieli, J. D. E. (2004). Insights into the ageing
mind: A view from cognitive neuroscience. Nature Reviews
Neuroscience, 5, 87–97.- Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon. The tip-of-the-tongue
(TOT) experience occurs when a person can’t retrieve a
memory but has a strong feeling that he or she will be
able to retrieve it sooner or later.
Brown, R., & McNeil, D. (1966). The “tip of the tongue” phe-
nomenon. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior,
5 , 325–337.Schwartz, B. I., Travis, D. M., Castro, A. M., & Smith, S. S.
(2000). The phenomenology of real and illusory tip-of-the-
tongue states. Memory & Cognition, 28, 18–27.- Superior memory. What distinguishes people who have
superior memory capabilities from people with “nor-
mal” memory capabilities? Apparently, in some cases, the
answer has to do with the strategies that these people use.
Maguire, E. A., Valentine, E. R., Wilding, J. M., & Kapur, N.
(2003). Routes to remembering: The brains behind superior
memory. Nature Neuroscience, 6, 90–95.Wilding, J., & Valentine, E. R. (1997). Superior memory. Hove,
UK: Psychology Press.- Adaptive memory. It has been proposed that because the
main function of memory is to ensure survival, tasks that
involve processing information for its relevance to sur-
vival result in the best memory. An example of using such
a task to remember a list of words is rating how relevant
each word is for survival if stranded in the grasslands of
a foreign country.
Nairne, J. S., & Pandeirada, J. N. S. (2008). Adaptive memory:
Remembering with a stone-age brain. Current Directions in
Psychological Science, 17, 239–243.Weinstein, Y., Bugg, J. M., & Roediger, H. L. (2008). Can the
survival recall advantage be explained by basic memory pro-
cesses? Memory & Cognition, 36, 913–919.- How memory for the past affects the ability to imagine
the future. Patients with amnesia due to brain damage
have trouble both remembering the past and imagining
events that might occur in the future. This result, plus
the results of brain imaging experiments, has led to the
constructive episodic simulation hypothesis, which states
that imagining the future involves some of the same
mechanisms involved in remembering the past.
Addis, D. R., Wong, A. T., & Schacter, D. L. (2007). Remember-
ing the past and imagining the future: Common and distinct
neural substrates during event construction and elaboration.
Neuropsychologia, 45, 1363–1377.Schacter, D. L., Addis, D. R., & Buckner, R. L. (2007). Remem-
bering the past to imagine the future: The prospective brain.
Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 8, 657–661.Key TERMS
Consolidation, 193
Cued recall, 182
Deep processing, 175
Depth of processing, 174
Elaborative rehearsal, 173
Encoding, 173
Encoding specifi city, 184
Free recall, 182
Generation effect, 178
Graded amnesia, 193
Levels of processing (LOP), 174
Levels-of-processing theory, 174
Long-term potentiation (LTP), 191
Maintenance rehearsal, 173
Medial temporal lobe (MTL), 191
Multiple trace hypothesis, 195
Paired-associate learning, 177
Reactivation, 194
Reconsolidation, 197
Rehearsal, 173
Remote memory, 193
Retrieval, 173Retrieval cues, 178
Self-reference effect, 177
Shallow processing, 174
Spacing effect, 188
Standard model of consolidation, 194
State-dependent learning, 185
Synaptic consolidation, 194
Systems consolidation, 194
Testing effect, 180
Transfer-appropriate processing, 185Copyright 2011 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part.