326 • CHAPTER 12 Problem Solving

What makes a problem

hard? (326)

Is there anything

special about problems

that seem to be solved in

a flash of “insight”? (327)

How can analogies be

used to help solve

problems? (340)

How do experts in a

field approach problems

differently than

nonexperts? (346)

Some Questions We Will Consider

T

he following is a story about physicist Richard Feynman, who received

the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work in nuclear fi ssion and quantum dynamics

and who had a reputation as a scientifi c genius.

A physicist working at the California Institute of Technology in the 1950s is having trou-

ble deciphering some of Feynman’s notes. He asks Murray Gell-Mann, a Nobel Laureate

and occasional collaborator of Feynman, “What are Feynman’s methods?” Gell-Mann

leans coyly against the blackboard and says—“Dick’s method is this. You write down

the problem. You think very hard.” [Gell-Mann shuts his eyes and presses his knuckles

periodically to his forehead.] “Then you write down the answer.” (adapted from Gleick,

1992, p. 315)

This is an amusing way of describing Feynman’s genius, but leaves unanswered the

question of what was really going on inside his head while he was thinking “very hard.”

Although we may not know the answer to this question for Feynman, research on prob-

lem solving has provided some answers for people in general. In this chapter we will

describe some of the ways cognitive psychologists have described the mental processes

that occur as people work toward determining the solution to a problem.

What Is a Problem?

What problems have you had to solve lately? When I ask students in my cognitive

psychology class this question, I get answers such as the following: problems for math,

chemistry, or physics courses; getting writing assignments in on time; dealing with

roommates, friends, and relationships in general; deciding what courses to take, what

career to go into; whether to go to graduate school or look for a job; how to pay for a

new car. Many of these things fi t the following defi nition: A problem occurs when there

is an obstacle between a present state and a goal and it is not immediately obvious how

to get around the obstacle (Lovett, 2002). Thus, a problem, as defi ned by psychologists,

is diffi cult, and the solution is not immediately obvious.

You may notice, however, that my students’ list includes two different types of

problems. One type, such as solving a math or physics problem, is called a well-defi ned

problem. Well-defi ned problems usually have a correct answer; certain procedures,

when applied correctly, will lead to a solution. Another type of problem, such as deal-

ing with relationships or picking a career, is called an ill-defi ned problem. Ill-defi ned

problems, which occur frequently in everyday life, do not necessarily have one “cor-

rect” answer, and the path to their solution is often unclear (Pretz et al., 2003). We will

consider ill-defi ned problems at the end of the chapter when we discuss creative prob-

lem solving. Our main concern will be well-defi ned problems, because psychological

research has focused on this type of problem. We begin by considering the approach of

the Gestalt psychologists, who introduced the study of problem solving to psychology

in the 1920s.

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