Assessing Leadership Style: Trait Analysis

The Psychological Assessment of Political Leaders

sary, they turn to illegal or even revolutionary tactics. In negotia-

tions, they are rational and cooperative, working toward solutions

that maximize the benefits to all parties.

Overall, achievement-motivated people seem to be rational calcu-

lators, pursuing their self-interest. Indeed, "rational actor" theories

typically assume something like achievement motivation as a uni-

versal motive—even the only human motive. This would be a mis-

take, however, for there are other important human social motives

that lead to quite different outcomes.

Affiliation Motivation: Concern for Close Relations with Others

Affiliation motive imagery is scored in texts or other verbal material

when there are references to warm, close relations among people or

nations, concern about disruption of warm relations, or nurturant

acts that imply warm relations. The following are examples of affilia-

tion motive imagery from political speeches or interviews.

TABLE 7.2. BEHAVIOR CORRELATES OF THE ACHIEVEMENT, AFFILIATION, AND
POWER MOTIVES
Characteristic Achievement Affiliation Power
Associated actions Moderate risks, using
information to
modify performance,
entrepreneurial
success, dishonest
means when necessary
to reach goal

Cooperative and

friendly under

"safe" conditions,

defensive and

even hostile under

threat

Leadership and high
morale of
subordinates, if high
in sense of
responsibility;
profligate impulsivity,
if low in sense
of responsibility
Negotiating style

Seeks help from

Political-

psychological

manifestations

Major reference

Cooperative and

"rational"

Technical experts

Frustration

Smith 1992, chap. 9

Cooperative under

"safe" conditions,

defensive and

hostile under

threat

Friends and

similar others

Peacemaking and

arms limitation,

vulnerability to

scandal

Smith 1992,

chaps. 13 and 15

Exploitative,

aggressive

Political "experts"

Charisma, war and

aggression,

independent foreign

policy, rated greatness

Smith 1992, chaps. 19,21

Source: Data from Winter 1996, 139.