Page | 31After the subsequent purges of the Mongolian party leaders who had directed the ill-fated
rapid collectivization program, Mongolia’s focus turned toward the east. In 1931 Japan
invaded Manchuria and established a puppet government. Both Mongolian and Soviet
leaders viewed the Japanese Manchurian colony as a launching ground for an invasion of
Mongolia. Japan, for its part, tried to elicit the loyalty of the Mongols by portraying itself
as the one true supporter of Mongolian nationalism.^158 Soviet-Mongolian military
cooperation increased after the signing of a 1934 mutual-defense agreement. By 1938,
military spending made up more than half of Mongolia’s budget. With Soviet aid, the
Mongolian government rapidly developed its transportation and communications
infrastructure to help improve the country’s security position.^159 Between May and
September 1939, Japanese forces fought the combined Mongolian-Soviet army in a
prolonged battle along the Khalkha River of eastern-most Mongolia. The Japanese
suffered large losses and ultimately signed a truce. Thereafter, the Japanese never
challenged Mongolia’s borders during the remainder of World
War II.^160
Mongolia and the Sino-Soviet Conflict
After World War II, Mongolia’s ties to the Soviet Union
strengthened even more. Choybalsan, by now firmly in power,
emulated many of the policies of his patron, Josef Stalin,
including massive purges of potential rivals and the creation of a
personality cult.^161 The government’s second attempt at
collectivizing livestock herding, carried out in the late 1950s,
was more successful than the first in the 1930s.162,^163
(^158) Larry Moses and Stephen A. Halkovic, Jr., “Chapter 7: Twentieth Century Mongolia,” in Introduction to
Mongolian History and Culture (Bloomington, IN: Research Institute for Inner Asian Studies, Indiana
University, 1985), 155.
In foreign
affairs, Mongolia became a firm supporter of Soviet positions in
matters of international importance. The Russian Cyrillic
(^159) Robert L. Worden, “Chapter 1: Historical Setting: Modern Mongolia, 1911–84: Economic Gradualism
and National Defense, 1932–45: The New Turn Policy, 1932–40,” in Mongolia: A Country Study, 2nd ed.
(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1991), 47.
(^160) Robert L. Worden, “Chapter 1: Historical Setting: Modern Mongolia, 1911–84: Economic Gradualism
and National Defense, 1932–45: National Defense, 1940–45,” in Mongolia: A Country Study, 2nd ed.
(Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1991), 49.
(^161) C. R. Bawden, “Chapter 8: The Destruction of the Old Order, 1932–1940: The Emergence of
Choibalsang as Dictator,” in The Modern History of Mongolia, 2nd ed. (London, UK: Kegan Paul
International, 1989), 328–346.
(^162) C. R. Bawden, “Mongolia and Mongolians: An Overview,” in Mongolia Today (London, UK: Kegan
Paul International, 2001), 21.
(^163) Donald R. DeGlopper, “Chapter 2: The Society and Its Environment: Society: Collectivized Farming
and Herding: Modernized Nomads,” in Mongolia: A Country Study, 2nd ed. (Washington, DC: U.S.
Government Printing Office, 1991), 88.