The Economist April 16th 2022 Science & technology 69
in a trillion (“seven sigma”, in the statisti
cal lingo), well above the one in 3.5m (five
sigma) that physicists require to consider a
finding robust.
The scientists at Fermilab analysed his
torical data from the Tevatron, a circular
particle collider which was the most po
werful in the world until the Large Hadron
Collider (lhc) came online in 2009. Be
tween 2002 and 2011 (when it ran for the
last time), the Tevatron produced approxi
mately 4m wbosons in collisions between
particles called quarks and their antimat
ter counterparts, antiquarks. Using de
tailed recordings of the scattering trajecto
ries of the menagerie of particles present
in such collisions, the scientists could cal
culate the mass of the wboson with un
precedented accuracy.
The finding has big implications. The w
boson is a forcecarrying particle. Together
with its sibling the zboson, it mediates the
weak nuclear force that governs radioac
tive decay. Unlike other forcecarrying par
ticles, however, the wand zbosons have
mass—and a lot of it. The wboson is 90
times heavier than a hydrogen atom. The z
boson is even more massive. What really
distinguishes the wboson, however, is its
ability to change the type—or “flavour”—of
other elementary particles it comes across.
For example, it can transform the electron
(and two of its cousins, the muon and tau)
into neutrinos. It can also flip quarks from
one type to another—up to down, top to
bottom, and the whimsically named
“strange” quark to a “charm” one.
These protean powers mean that the
mass of the wboson is linked to the mass
of several other elementary particles. That
allows scientists to use the wboson to cal
culate the mass of those other particles.
That is how they predicted the mass of the
top quark (discovered in 1995) and the mass
of the Higgs boson (discovered in 2012), be
fore either particle had been detected. If
the wboson is more massive than the Stan
dard Model predicts, it implies that some
thing else is tugging on it too—an asyet
undiscovered particle or force. For particle
physicists, that is an exciting prospect.
It is not the only one. In March 2021 sci
entists from cern—Europe’s particle
physics laboratory—reported evidence
that the bottom quark decays into elec
trons and muons in uneven numbers, con
tradicting the Standard Model. Only three
weeks later, Fermilab announced that the
magnetic moment of the muon appears to
be greater than predicted by the Standard
Model too. Like the mass of the wboson,
the magnetic moment of the muon is part
ly determined by the properties of other
particles. If it is greater than the Standard
Model predicts, that hints at an asyetun
discovered particle or force too.
Assuming, that is, the results are real.
Exciting as they were, neither result from
2021 crossedthe5sigmathreshold(they
hit3.1and4.2sigma,respectively).That
meansfurtherconfirmationisnecessary.
ThemorerecentTevatronresult,though,
contradicts the previous best measure
mentofthewbosonmass,madein 2017 at
thelhc. Thatwasincloseagreementwith
theStandardModel,presentinga puzzle.
Ontheotherhand,thelatestTevatron
resultalignswellwithpreviousdatapro
videdbytheLargeElectronPositronCol
lider,thelhc’spredecessor.Itisconse
quentlythestrongestevidenceyetofthe
physicsthatmustliebeyondtheStandard
Model.Anyonewhoprefersinterestinger
rorsoveryetmoredullconfirmationwill
behopingit holdsup.n
Medicaltechnology
Heat treatment
I
f you cutyourself, your options are to
reach for a plaster or, if the cut is nasty, to
go to a doctor to have it stitched or glued.
That seems a rather limited choice. Medi
cal researchers have been trying to develop
another way to join the edges of a wound,
inspired by something routinely done to
gas pipes and electronics: soldering. And
an innovation developed at the Swiss Fed
eral Institute of Technology (eth) in Zu
rich, in cooperation with the Swiss mate
rialsscience institute Empa, suggests this
might soon become a practical reality.
In soldering, an intermediate material
is heated until it melts and bonds with the
two surfaces that are to be joined. The ma
terial of these edges has a higher melting
point and remains solid (otherwise it
would count as welding).
For tissue, the intermediate material is
not a metal alloy, but a paste of biocompat
ible material, such as albumin, a protein
that is an important constituent of blood.
When heated, the paste develops chemical
bonds with living tissue on both sides. As
healing progresses, the two sides recon
nect and the paste is removed by the body's
natural cleaning procedures.
Closing wounds by soldering has sever
al important advantages, says Oscar Cipo
lato, a phdcandidate at eth, who present
ed preliminary results on April 5th at the
Photonics Europe conference in Strasburg,
France. The bond it produces is strong and
watertight, something that cannot be guar
anteed with stitches. If a wound is inter
nal—after surgery, for instance—a leak
could cause an infection.
But soldering tissue has turned out to
be difficult in practice, which means it is
not commonly done. Heating the soldering
paste is done by shining a laser onto it,
from which the paste absorbs energy. But
controlling the heating precisely is tricky.
The paste needs to reach about 80°c to
work. If the temperature is too low, the sol
dering material will not fully melt and the
bond will be weak. But if it is too high, it
risks burning the surrounding tissue. Ex
isting attempts at woundsoldering rely on
thermal imaging to measure temperature.
But that only measures the temperature at
the surface of the solder, rather than
throughout the material.
Mr Cipolato and Inge Herrmann, a
chemical engineer at eth, hope their im
proved paste can get around such pro
blems. It is made up of two kinds of nano
particles, specks of material of only about
20billionths of a metre across. Between
them, these help direct the energy of the la
ser to the places it should be, and help doc
tors gauge the conditions in the paste.
The first set of particles are made of tita
nium nitrate. They eagerly absorb photons
of red or near infrared light, precisely the
colours that most easily penetrate living
tissue, and release the energy as heat to
their surroundings. That efficient absorp
tion means the paste can be heated by a rel
atively weak laser beam, which helps pro
tect the surrounding tissues.
Using such tiny particles is in itself not
new. But until recently most researchers
used tiny rods of gold, which are expen
sive. Nanoparticles of titanium nitrate, on
the other hand, are easily and cheaply pro
duced by spraying the right mix of precur
sor chemicals into a flame.
The second set of particles are a new de
velopment in the soldering world. They are
specks of a material which fluoresces. In
other words, it absorbs the laser light, but
immediately reemits the energy as light
again, at a few very specific wavelengths.
Soldering offers a new, better way
to treat wounds
Firing up the soldering iron