86 Grief and Loss Across the Lifespan
a proliferation of video and computer games, and fears for their safety in many
neighborhoods, children may have fewer opportunities to use their large mus-
cles and pundits have expressed concern about the development of children’s
bodies and the growing levels of obesity in the United States (Wallis, 2006).
Still others say the risk of obesity, and indeed the way the label of obesity
is applied, is overstated and inaccurate (Campos, 2004). All agree, however,
that children in this age group benefit from physical activity to maintain their
health. Touch—whether gentle and nurturing or as playful rough housing—
seems related to learning gross motor skills and may have beneficial epigen-
etic effects analogous to the thriving of rat pups licked and handled by their
mothers (DeGregorio, 2013).
Childhood obesity causes physical effects that can limit children’s devel-
opment. It is highly correlated with later development of type 2 diabetes and
cardiovascular disease. There are some indications that it may affect cognitive
development negatively (Reilly, 2007), though this is most often found among
those whose morbid obesity has stressed the circulatory system and oxygen-
ation. Fitness and activity levels seem to have greater impact than weight itself
(Center for Consumer Freedom, 2008).
A very pressing concern for this age group is the effect poverty has
on a myriad of characteristics. In 2000, almost a fifth of U.S. children were
being raised in poor neighborhoods and poverty has been associated with
low birth weight and prematurity in infancy (making school success more
difficult) as well as with poorer mental and physical health (Xue, Leventhal,
Brooks-Gunn, & Earls, 2005). By 2010, the poverty rate for children under
18 years old had increased to 21.9%, a 35% rise for that age group from
2000, and a shade over 25% of children under age 5 were living in poverty
(Children’s Defense Fund, 2012). Minority and lower socioeconomic class
children have higher rates of obesity and also experience more negative health
effects related to obesity (Yancey & Kumanyika, 2007). While some blame par-
ents for children’s obesity, most research indicates that parents are concerned but
have limited time to prepare and serve healthy meals and to supervise exercise
or activities; this time crunch is even more pronounced among poorer families
(Styles, Meier, Sutherland, & Campbell, 2007). Obese children may experience
loss of peer approval and/or friendships, losses that are particularly poignant
during elementary school when children are developing their social skills.Psychological Development
During the elementary school years, children undergo rapid developmental
growth in academic ability as the result of improved processing and integra-
tive cognitive skills. Social skills also develop considerably. The ability to navi-
gate academic and social demands has a great positive impact on children’s
sense of self-efficacy and self-image.
Children with learning disabilities (LD) are particularly at risk for poor
outcomes like lowered self-esteem and efficacy because they have difficulty
meeting these demands. If learning differences are not diagnosed early, chil-
dren may grow to believe they are incapable of success and their expectation
of failure can become a self-fulfilling prophecy (Lackaye & Margalit, 2008).