Front Matter

 

Contents xi

• Growth and Use 1 Fundamental Biochemical and Biotechnological Principles of Biomass


• 1.1 Learning Objectives Manfred Kircher


• 1.2 Comparison of Fossil-BasedversusBio-Based Raw Materials


• 1.2.1 The Nature of Fossil Raw Materials


• 1.2.2 Industrial Use


• 1.2.2.1 Energy


• 1.2.2.2 Chemicals


• 1.2.3 Expectancy of Resources


• 1.2.4 Green House Gas (GHG) Emission


• 1.2.5 Regional Pillars of Competitiveness


• 1.2.6 Questions for Further Consideration


• 1.3 TheNatureofBio-BasedRawMaterials


• 1.3.1 Oil Crops


• 1.3.2 Sugar Crops


• 1.3.3 Starch Crops


• 1.3.4 Lignocellulosic Plants


• 1.3.5 Lignocellulosic Biomass


• 1.3.6 Algae


• 1.3.7 Plant Breeding


• 1.3.8 Basic Transformation Principles


• 1.3.8.1 First Generation


• 1.3.8.2 Second Generation


• 1.3.8.3 Third Generation


• 1.3.9 Industrial Use


• 1.3.9.1 Energy


• 1.3.9.2 Chemicals


• 1.3.9.3 Biocatalysts


• 1.3.9.4 Pharmaceuticals


• 1.3.9.5 Nutrition


• 1.3.9.6 Polymers


• 1.3.10 Expectancy of Resources vi Contents


• 1.3.11 Green House Gas Emission


• 1.3.12 Regional Pillars of Competitiveness


• 1.3.13 Questions for Further Consideration


• 1.4 General Considerations Surrounding Bio-Based Raw Materials


• 1.4.1 Economical Challenges


• 1.4.2 Feedstock Demand Challenges


• 1.4.3 Ecological Considerations


• 1.4.4 Societal Considerations


• 1.4.4.1 Food Security


• 1.4.4.2 Public Acceptance


• 1.5 Research Advances Made Recently


• 1.5.1 First-Generation Processes and Products


• 1.5.2 Second-Generation Processes and Products


• 1.5.3 Third-Generation Processes and Products


• 1.6 Prominent Scientists Working in this Arena


• 1.7 Summary


• 1.8 Study Problems


• 1.9 Key References
  
  
  • References
  
  
  
  


• 2 Fundamental Science and Applications for Biomaterials


• 2.1 Introduction Ali S. Ayoub and Lucian A. Lucia
  
  
  • Lignocellulosics? 2.2 What are the Biopolymers that Encompass the Structure and Function of
  
  
  
  


• 2.2.1 Cellulose


• 2.2.2 Heteropolysaccharides


• 2.2.3 Lignin


• 2.2.4 The Discovery of Cellulose and Lignin


• 2.3 Chemical Reactivity of Cellulose, Heteropolysaccharides, and Lignin


• 2.3.1 Cellulose Reactivity


• 2.3.1.1 Reactivity Measurements


• 2.3.1.2 Dissolving-Grade Pulps


• 2.3.1.3 Converting Paper-Grade Pulps into Dissolving-Grade Pulps


• 2.3.2 Hemicellulose Reactivity


• 2.3.2.1 Structural Characterization of Hemicellulose


• 2.3.3 Lignin Reactivity


• 2.4 Composite as a Unique Application for Renewable Materials


• 2.4.1 Rationale and Significance


• 2.4.2 Starch-Based Materials


• 2.4.3 Starch-Based Plastics


• 2.4.3.1 Novamont


• 2.4.3.2 Cereplast


• 2.4.3.3 Ecobras


• 2.4.3.4 Biotec


• 2.4.3.5 Plantic


• 2.4.3.6 Biolice Contents vii


• 2.4.3.7 KTM Industries


• 2.4.3.8 Cerestech, Inc.


• 2.4.3.9 Teknor Apex


• 2.5 Question for Further Consideration
  
  
  • References
  
  
  
  


• 3 Conversion Technologies


• 3.1 Learning Objectives Maurycy Daroch


• 3.2 Energy Scenario at Global Level


• 3.2.1 Why Our Energy is so Important?


• 3.2.2 Black Treasure Chest


• 3.2.3 Conventional Fossil Resources and their Alternatives


• 3.2.3.1 Light Crude Oil (Conventional Oil)


• 3.2.3.2 Coal


• 3.2.3.3 Natural Gas


• 3.2.3.4 Shale Oil (Tight Oil)


• 3.2.3.5 Oil Sands, Bitumen Extra Heavy Oil


• 3.2.3.6 Shale Gas


• 3.2.3.7 Methane (Gas) Hydrates


• 3.2.3.8 EROI – How Much Fuel in Fuel?


• 3.2.3.9 Environmental Effects of Fossil Resource Utilisation


• 3.3 Biomass


• 3.3.1 Renewable Energy and Renewable Carbon


• 3.3.2 Why Different Types of Biomass have the Properties they Have?


• 3.4 Biomass Conversion Methods


• 3.4.1 Conversion of Biochemical Energy Perspective


• 3.4.2 Overview of Biomass Conversion Technologies


• 3.4.3 Thermochemical Conversion of Biomass


• 3.4.4 Biomass Combustion


• 3.4.5 Gasification


• 3.4.6 Pyrolysis


• 3.4.7 Conversion of Oily Feedstocks


• 3.4.8 Biochemical Conversion of Biomass


• 3.4.8.1 Aerobic and Anaerobic Metabolisms


• 3.4.8.2 Central Metabolic Pathway under Anaerobic Conditions


• 3.4.9 Harvesting Energy from Biochemical Processes


• 3.4.9.1 Ethanol Fermentation


• 3.4.9.2 ABE Fermentation


• 3.4.9.3 Biohydrogen


• 3.4.9.4 Biomethane
  
  
  • Bioenergy and Biomaterials 3.5 Metrics to Assist the Transition Towards Sustainable Production of
  
  
  
  


• 3.5.1 EROI – Primary Metrics of Energy Carrier Efficiency


• 3.5.2 LCA – Sustainability Determinant


• 3.5.3 Environmental Assessment of Bioenergy Production Processes


• 3.5.3.1 Impacts Related to Land-Use Change viii Contents


• 3.5.3.2 Impacts of Feedstock Cultivation


• 3.5.3.3 Impacts of Conversion Process


• 3.5.3.4 Impacts of Product Use


• 3.5.4 Sustainability Metrics in Biomass and Bioenergy Policies


• 3.5.5 Renewable and Non-Renewable Carbon – Taxation and Subsidies


• 3.6 Summary


• 3.7 Key References
  
  
  • References
  
  
  
  


• 4 Characterization Methods and Techniques


• 4.1 Philosophy Statement Noppadon Sathitsuksanoh and Scott Renneckar


• 4.2 Understanding the Characteristics of Biomass
  
  
  • Analysis 4.3 Taking Precautions Prior to Setting Up Experiments for Biomass
  
  
  
  


• 4.4 Classifying Biomass Sizes for Proper Analysis
  
  
  • Analysis 4.5 Moisture Content of Biomass and Importance of Drying Samples Prior to
  
  
  
  


• 4.6 When the Carbon is Burned


• 4.7 Structural Cell Wall Analysis, What To Look For


• 4.8 Hydrolyzing Biomass and Determining Its Composition


• 4.8.1 Analyzing Filtrate by HPLC for Monosaccharide Contents


• 4.8.2 Choosing the HPLC Column and Its Operating Conditions


• 4.9 Determining Cell Wall Structures Through Spectroscopy and Scattering


• 4.9.1 Probing the Chemical Structure of Biomass


• 4.9.1.1 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD)


• 4.9.1.2 Cross-polarization/Magic Angle Spinning (CP/MAS)^13 CNMR


• 4.9.1.3 Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)


• 4.9.1.4 Raman Analysis


• 4.10 Examining the Size of the Biopolymers: Molecular Weight Analysis


• 4.11 Intricacies of Understanding Lignin Structure


• 4.11.1^13 CNMR


• 4.11.2^31 PNMR


• 4.11.3 2D HSQC


• 4.11.4 Methoxyl Content Determination


• 4.11.4.1^1 HNMR


• 4.11.4.2 Hydriodic Acid


• 4.11.4.3 Direct Methanol


• 4.12 Questions for Further Consideration
  
  
  • References
  
  
  • to Forest Biomaterials 5 Introduction to Life-Cycle Assessment and Decision Making Applied
  
  
  
  


• 5.1 Introduction Jesse Daystar and Richard Venditti


• 5.1.1 What is LCA?


• 5.1.1.1 History Contents ix


• 5.1.2 LCA for Decision Making


• 5.1.2.1 Eco-labels


• 5.2 LCA Components Overview


• 5.2.1 Goal and Scope Definition


• 5.2.2 Inventory Analysis


• 5.2.3 Life-Cycle Impact Assessment


• 5.2.4 Interpretation


• 5.3 Life-Cycle Assessment Steps


• 5.3.1 Goal, Scope, System Boundaries


• 5.3.1.1 Goal Definition


• 5.3.1.2 Scope Definition


• 5.3.1.3 Functional Unit


• 5.3.1.4 Cutoff Criteria


• 5.3.1.5 Problems Set – Goal and Scope Definition


• 5.3.2 Life-Cycle Inventory


• 5.3.2.1 Preparation of Data Collection Based on Goal and Scope


• 5.3.2.2 Data Collection


• 5.3.2.3 Data Quality


• 5.3.2.4 Coproduct Treatment – Allocation


• 5.3.2.5 Relating Data to the Unit Process


• 5.3.2.6 Relating Data to the Functional Unit


• 5.3.2.7 Data Aggregation


• 5.3.2.8 LCI Data Interpretation


• 5.3.2.9 Problems Set – Life-Cycle Inventory


• 5.3.2.10 Mandatory Elements


• 5.3.2.11 Classification


• 5.3.2.12 Characterization


• 5.3.2.13 Optional Elements


• 5.3.2.14 Life Cycle Impact Assessment Interpretation


• 5.3.2.15 Problems Set –Life-Cycle Impact Assessment


• 5.4 LCA Tools for Forest Biomaterials


• 5.4.1 FICAT


• 5.4.2 GREET Model
  
  
  • References
  
  
  • Building Blocks 6 First Principles of Pretreatment and Cracking Biomass to Fundamental
  
  
  
  


• 6.1 Introduction Amir Daraei Garmakhany and Somayeh Sheykhnazari


• 6.1.1 What Is Lignocellulosic Material?


• 6.1.1.1 Lignocellulosic Materials


• 6.1.1.2 Cellulose


• 6.1.1.3 Hemicellulose


• 6.1.1.4 Lignin
  
  
  • Biomass? 6.2 What Difference Should Be Considered Between Wood and Agricultural
  
  
  
  


• 6.2.1 Intrapolymeric Bonds x Contents


• 6.2.2 Polymeric Inter Bonds
  
  
  • Components 6.2.3 Functional Groups and Chemical Characteristics of Lignocellulosic Biomass
  
  
  
  


• 6.2.4 Aromatic Ring


• 6.2.5 Hydroxyl Group


• 6.2.6 Ether Bond


• 6.2.7 Ester Bond


• 6.2.8 Hydrogen Bond


• 6.3 Define Pretreatment


• 6.3.1 What Is the Purpose of Pretreatment?


• 6.4 Steps of Production of Cellulosic Ethanol


• 6.4.1 Pretreatment


• 6.4.2 Hydrolysis


• 6.4.3 What Are the Inhibitors for Biomass Carbohydrate Hydrolysis?


• 6.4.4 Fermentation


• 6.4.5 Formation of Fermentation Inhibitors


• 6.4.6 Sugars Degradation Products


• 6.4.7 Lignin Degradation Products


• 6.4.8 Acetic Acid


• 6.4.9 Inhibitory Extractives


• 6.4.10 Heavy Metal Ions


• 6.4.11 Separation
  
  
  • Technology? 6.5 What Are the Key Considerations for Making a Successful Pretreatment
  
  
  
  


• 6.5.1 Effect of Pretreatment on Hydrolysis Process


• 6.6 What Are the General Methods Used in Pretreatment?


• 6.7 What Is Currently Being Done and What Are the Advances?


• 6.7.1 Steam Explosion


• 6.7.2 Hydrothermolysis


• 6.7.3 High-Energy Irradiations


• 6.7.4 Acid Pretreatment


• 6.7.5 Mechanism of Acid Hydrolysis


• 6.7.6 Alkaline Pretreatment


• 6.7.7 Ammonia Pretreatment


• 6.7.8 Ammonia Recycle Percolation (ARP)


• 6.7.9 Ammonia Fiber Expansion (AFEX)


• 6.7.10 Defects of AFEX Process


• 6.7.11 Enzymatic Pretreatment


• 6.7.12 Advantages of Biological Pretreatment


• 6.7.13 Defects of Biological Pretreatment


• 6.8 Summary
  
  
  • References
  
  
  • Enzymatic Polymerization 7 Green Route to Prepare Renewable Polyesters from Monomers:
  
  
  
  


• 7.1 Philosophic Statement Toufik Naolou


• 7.2 Introduction
  
  
  • (Lactones and Lactides) 7.3 Lipase-Catalyzed Ring-Opening Polymerizations of Cyclic Monomeric Esters
  
  
  
  


• 7.4 Lipase-Catalyzed Polycondensation


• 7.4.1 Dicarboxylic Acid or Its Esters with Diols


• 7.4.2 Dicarboxylic Acid or Its Esters with Polyols


• 7.4.3 Polyesters from Fatty Acid-Based Monomers
  
  
  • Diols 7.4.3.1 Lipase-Catalyzed Polycondensation ofα,ω-Dicarboxylic Acids and
  
  
  
  


• 7.4.3.2 Lipase-Catalyzed Polycondensation of Hydroxy Fatty Acids


• 7.4.3.3 Fatty Acids as Side Chains to Modify Functional Polyesters


• 7.4.4 Polyester Using Furan as Building Block


• 7.4.5 Conclusions and Remarks


• 7.4.6 Questions for Further Consideration
  
  
  • List of Abbreviations
  
  
  • References
  
  
  • Composites 8 Oil-Based and Bio-Derived Thermoplastic Polymer Blends and
  
  
  
  


• 8.1 Introduction Alessia Quitadamo, Valerie Massardier and Marco Valente


• 8.2 Oil-Based and Bio-Derived Thermoplastic Polymer Blends
  
  
  • Polymers 8.2.1 Comparison Between Oil-Based and Bio-Derived Thermoplastic
  
  
  
  


• 8.2.2 Thermoplastics Blends


• 8.3 Thermoplastic Composites with Natural Fillers


• 8.3.1 Wood–Plastic Composites


• 8.3.2 Waste Paper as Filler in Thermoplastic Composites


• 8.4 Conclusion


• 8.5 Questions for Further Consideration
  
  
  • References
  
  
  • Index