Bioassay of Rongbao (Active Ingredients of Calcium Cyanamide) Against Housefly Maggots 103
are parasites of house flies and Spalangia species
are parasites of stable flies (Aluja et al. 2003 ; Ax-
tell and Arends 1990 ; Feder 1995 ; Ratcliffe et al.
2002 ; Rivers et al. 2012 ).
Introduction of Natural Enemies
Predators sometimes have a decisive effect on
controlling fly populations in an orchard, veg-
etable garden and human-inhabited area. Inver-
tebrate predators may include spiders, ants, ca-
rabid beetles, assassin bugs, staphylinid beetles
among others. Vertebrate predators, such as
birds, domestic fowls and primates, can consume
flies, resulting in marked reduction in their num-
bers (Bruns 1960 ; Geden et al. 1988 ; Kaufman
et al. 2000 ; Klopsch et al. 2012 ; Prasad and Sny-
der 2004 ; Redford 1984 ; Urbaneja et al. 2006 ;
Wright et al. 1960 ).
Pathogenic Microorganisms for Flies
Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) is best known as a
pathogen of lepidopterous larvae, which was
first isolated at the beginning of the twenti-
eth century from diseased silkworms in Japan.
Commercial production of pesticides based on
Bt began in the USA in 1958 (Alfazairy et al.
2013 ; Farrar Jr et al. 2009 ; Hughes et al. 1986 ;
La Lacey et al. 2001 ). Today, Bt products are
the most widely used biological agents for the
control of lepidopteran pests on food crops and
forest trees, including dipteran pests such as flith
flies. Isolation of mosquito pathogenic strains of
Bacillus sphaericus (Bs) predated the isolation
of Bt by some 10 years, but these early strains
showed low toxicity. Following an intensive iso-
lation and screening program organized by the
WHO, more toxic strains of Bs were recovered
and these, together with several isolated strains
in other research project, have considerable po-
tential as control agents. On the other hand, an
important attribute of Bs seems to be its residual
effect in the environment following application
and activity in heavily polluted areas which have
promoted its use as a biocontrol agent for insect
pests of public health importance (Charles et al.
1996 ; La Lacey et al. 2001 ; Priest 1992 ).Plant or Animal Secondary Compound
Application
Natural products, especially plant or animal sec-
ondary compounds, are well known to have a
range of useful biological properties against in-
sect pests. Botanical pesticides with azadirachtin,
rotenone, pyrethrin, hot-pepper wax, garlic oil,
citrus oil and herbal essential oils as their active
ingredients are commercially applied in crop
protection, nuisance and diseases control and
prevention in human and livestock (Al-Doghairi
and El Hag 2003 ; Dorman and Beasley 1991 ;
Ho et al. 1996 ; Liu et al. 2009 ; Madanlar et al.
2000 ; Miller and Chamberlain 1989 ; Park and
Shin 2005 ; Shalaby et al. 1998; Singh et al. 2003 ;
Singh and Singh 1998 ; Witt et al. 1999 ). Accord-
ing to research, other plant-based materials, such
as basil oil, catnip oil, turpentine, rosin, camphor,
cineole, have been proved to have the toxicity
and/or repellant efficacy to control insect pests
(Al-Doghairi and El Hag 2003 ; Bernier et al.
2005 ; Chang et al. 2009 ; Dube et al. 1989 ; Isman
2000 ; Lee et al. 2004 ; Obeng-Ofori et al. 1998 ;
Park and Shin 2005 ; Peterson et al. 2002 ; Prates
et al. 1998 ; Witt et al. 1999 ).
Although both environmental management
and physical control have been recently empha-
sized as basic fly-control measures all over the
world, it is important to stress that environmental
management and physical control cannot operate
alone; they must work alongside other control
strategies in an integrated fashion. Chemical con-
trol remains the first consideration for fly con-
trol, because its killing effect can immediately
solve the insect pest problem. However, chemi-
cals harm the environment. Biological control is
the best recommended fly-control measure as it
is eco-friendly and is harmless to non-target or-
ganisms. It is urgent to find an alternative way to
complement those measures.
Calcium cyanamide (CC) has been identified
as an N-fertilizer resource, vegetable product
improver, soil ameliorant, microorganism con-