128 M. Alibabaie and M. H. SafaralizadehIn the countries where modern storage technolo-
gies have been introduced, bean pests are usu-
ally controlled either by contact insecticides or
by fumigation with an insecticidal gas. However,
residual toxicity, resistant insect strains, worker’s
safety, and high cost of the treatment call for new
systems for their control (Yildirim et al. 2001 ).Fumigant Toxicity
Fumigation is one of the major chemical meth-
ods to control stored-product insect infestations
worldwide. Currently, phosphine and methyl bro-
mide are the products most widely used (Bond
1984 ; Fields and White 2002 ; Lee et al. 2004 ;
Emekci 2010 ). Carbon dioxide and sulfuryl fluo-
ride are also registered for fumigation of stored
grain in several countries. Fumigation is the
method of choice for many stored-grain manag-
ers because it is effective against all life stages,
inexpensive, rapid, and leaves minimal residues
(van Someren Graver 2004 ). However, there
are some concerns about the current fumigants.
Methyl bromide has largely been phased out in
developed countries, and it is slated to be phased
out in the rest of the world by 2015, because it
is an ozone-depleting substance (TEAP 2000 ;
Fields and White 2002 ). Phosphine is not effec-
tive against insect populations in India, Australia,
and Brazil because of resistance (Bell and Wil-
son 1995 ; Benhalima et al. 2004 ; Collins et al.
2005 ; Pimentel et al. 2009 ). Carbon dioxide re-
quires high temperatures and high concentrations
to control insect populations (Soderstrom et al.
1992 ). Sulfuryl fluoride is used as a replace-
ment for methyl bromide, but eggs require high
doses or long durations to be effective (Kenaga
1957 ; Baltaci et al. 2009 ). However, for small
subsistent farmers in developing countries these
fumigants are not available or too costly to use.
Several essential oils have antiparasitical, bac-
tericidal, fungicidal, virucidal, and insecticidal
properties (Bakkali et al. 2008 ; Rajendran and
Sriranjini 2008 ). The essential oils are rich in
monoterpenes and cause death of insects by in-
hibiting acetylcholinesterase activity in nervous
system (Houghton et al. 2006 ).Control of stored-product insects primar-
ily depends upon the continuing application of
liquid–gaseous insecticides (White and Leesch
1995 ; Ren et al. 2008 ). Although effective their
repeated use for several decades has disrupted
biological control system by natural enemies and
led to outbreaks of insect pests, widespread de-
velopment of resistance, undesirable effects on
nontarget organisms, environmental and human
health concerns (Champ and Dyte 1977 ). The
increasing concern about its adverse effects has
highlighted the need for the development of se-
lective insect-control alternatives. Plants may
provide potential alternatives to currently used
insect-control agents because they constitute a
rich source of bioactive chemicals (Regnault-
Roger 1997 ; Weaver and Subramanyam 2000 ;
Isman 2006 ; Negahban et al. 2007 ). Much ef-
fort has, therefore, been focused on plant derived
materials for potentially useful products as com-
mercial insect-control agents (Rajendran and
Sriranjini 2008 ). Sometimes it has been claimed
that monoterpenoids have comparable fumigant
action to that of methyl bromide (Shaaya et al.
1997 ; Dunkel and Sears 1998 ). Many aromatic
plant species are indigenous to Iran (Naghibi
et al. 2005 ), but essential oils have scarcely been
evaluated (Negahban et al. 2007 ).Essential Oil
Nutmeg ( Myristica fragrans), whose seed is
widely used as a spice, is a tropical, dioeciously
evergreen tree native to Moluccas or Spice Is-
land of Indonesia. Nutmeg has a characteristic
pleasant fragrance and has slightly warm taste.
It is used to flavor many kinds of baked goods,
confections, puddings, meats, sausages, saucers,
vegetables, and beverages (Panayotopoulos and
Chisholm 1970 ).
The hypnotic, analgesic, and hypotensive ac-
tivities of M. fragrans have also been reported
(Grover et al. 2002 ). With the recent gain in
popularity of herbal medicine the world over it is
also possible to misuse M. fragrans because of its
medicinal properties. It has been reported that theAQ1