Genes, Brains, and Human Potential The Science and Ideology of Intelligence

316 PROMOTING POTENTIAL

structure than with trying to establish true equality of opportunity. To

reinforce this point, let us look at the other side of the coin.

THE PSY CHOL OGY OF DISENGAGEMENT

Cognitive engagement with the system dynamics of a society is crucial
for the full development of individuals and the creation of potential.
Th ose on the margins in the social class structure are cognitively disen-
gaged in many ways. And that seriously aff ects their own potential for
learning and that of their children. I considered these matters in the con-
text of IQ test per for mance in chapter 3. But it is worth taking another
view in the pres ent context of causes of individual diff erences.
Th e main fi nding of Th e Spirit Level, by Richard Wilkinson and Kate
Pickett (analyses done in a number of countries, including fi ft y U.S. states)
was that the greater the in equality of the society to which a child be-
longed, the wider the diff erences in school per for mance. Why should this
be so? Well, it seems that feeling at the bottom of an even steeper social cliff
has even bigger psychological consequences. It means more depressing
comparisons with those “above,” even lower self- esteem, lower sense of
security, and a reduced sense of personal control over circumstances.
Th is view has been supported in other studies. Pamela Smith and col-
leagues showed how a sense of powerlessness inclines individuals to view
themselves as merely “the means for other people’s goals.”^41 More recently,
Candice Odgers has also noted how “among wealthy nations, children in
countries with higher levels of income in equality consistently fare worse
on multiple indices of health, educational attainment, and well- being. New
research also suggests that low- income children may be experiencing worse
outcomes, and a form of ‘double disadvantage’, when they live and attend
school alongside more affl uent versus similarly positioned peers.” Added
to little money is what she calls “the role of subjective social status.”^42
Th ose psychological eff ects make the material circumstances of lower
social classes bite even harder. Th ey are already serious enough. Parents’
constant grinding worry about money shortages and future security de-
pletes energy resources for cognition. A report in Science (August  30,
2013) notes how poverty- related concerns impair cognitive capacity and
other be hav ior. “Simply put,” it says, “being poor taps out one’s mental

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