examined by Mukherjee et al. ( 2008 ), although the analysis is unclear with regard to
relationships with modern biotypes.) Zoroastrianism, a monotheistic religion of
Iran, was founded by the Prophet Zoroaster in ancient Persia approximately
3500 years ago, and is still practiced by about 3 million devotees. Cannabis usage
appears to have been a central activity in early Zoroastrian shamanic ecstasy
(Mechoulam 1986 ).
Cannabis was employed medicinally in major civilization of the ancient world,
including Assyria, Egypt, India, Greece, Rome and the Islamic empire. Assyria was
a major Near East kingdom and empire from about 1250 BC to 612 BC. Assyrians
employed cannabis as a psychoactive mind-altering drug as well as for medical
purposes (Mechoulam and Parker 2013 ). Cannabis was applied medicinally to treat
a wide variety of illnesses in traditional herbal medicine of China, Ayurvedic
medicine of India and Tibetan medicine. Analgesic use is implied from Chinese oral
tradition allegedly dating to 2700 B.C. (Li 1973 ) and some portions the East Indian
Atharva Veda dated at about 2000 B.C. (Gurley et al. 1998 ). The Egyptian Ebers
Papyrus described a plant calledshemshemet, often interpreted asC. sativabecause
of allusions to itsfiber and medicinal uses, although the accuracy of this is ques-
tionable (Abel 1980 ; Wills 1998 ). AsC. sativawas spread through the Middle East
and Africa over the last 2 millennia, medicinal usages were adopted, particularly in
the Mohammedan world, especially in Persia and Arabia.
Over the last millennium, cannabis consumption became morefirmly entrenched
in southern Asia from Afghanistan to India, than anywhere else in the world.
Cannabis became intimately associated with religions of southern Asia (Aldrich
1977 ), and its sacred use in India predates written records (Hasan 1975 ). Inebriating
drug preparations (such as marijuana and hashish) were (and continue to be)
consumed for ritualistic, religious, hedonistic and medical purposes. Not surpris-
ingly, highly domesticated drug land races were selected in southern Asia.
WhileCannabishas been extensively used as an inebriating and medicinal drug
for thousands of years in southern Asia, and subsequently in the Near East, parts of
Africa, and other Old World areas, widespread drug use (either recreational or
medicinal) simply did not develop in temperate region countries until the nineteenth
century. By contrast, in most temperate climate countries onlyfiber hemp was
raised and utilized until comparatively recently. After the French war in Egypt and
Syria (1798–1801), returning Napoleonic soldiers brought back knowledge of
cannabis usage to France. Similarly, British physicians returning from India also
introduced the intoxicant use of cannabis drugs to their homeland. In due course the
recreational use of cannabis became better known in Europe, although not partic-
ularly popular until the latter twentieth century.
The use of cannabis for recreational, spiritual and medicinal purposes was
probably imported into South America in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries,
particularly to Brazil, becoming established in early times among low-income rural
groups. The same cultural diffusion seems to have occurred when African slaves
were transferred to the Caribbean area. In the West Indies where cannabis is used
1 Classification ofCannabis sativaL. in Relation... 25