Chapter 9: Common warthog Phacochoerus africanus (Gmelin, 1788)95
few minutes, and then cautiously edge out. Or they may also
burst out of burrow and run about 10 m. When trapped in a
burrow, they may rush out with an aggressive sideways slashing
movement of the head. Alternatively, they ‘sit tight’ – sometimes
for more than 24 h (Cumming 1975).
Allogrooming occurs among family members and involves
adult females more than adult males. It most commonly
includes rubbing or massaging with the snout, and nibbling
the skin and hair on the ventrum with incisors. Hairs are drawn
through closed lips to remove ectoparasites (Cumming 1975).
Conspecifics invite allogrooming by lying down, spreading
one or both pairs of limbs and rolling over, exposing ventrum
(Somers et al. 1995).
Play by piglets includes play-fighting, pushing and hitting
head-to-head (Figure 9.6), chasing, spinning, running in and out
of the burrow, and tossing soil with the snout (Somers et al. 1995).
Bouts of play are frequent after wallowing (Cumming 2013).
Both sexes begin scent-marking at 6–7 months of age. Scent-
marks are placed on a solid substrate (e.g. tree trunk, stump) by
rubbing the preorbital gland (Figure 9.7) and/or the supraoral
gland. Sometimes they also scent-mark with the chin, neck, or
sides of the face. ‘Mouth-wiping’ (the underside of the upper
lip wiped on a tree trunk) is generally followed by marking of
other sounder members with the preorbital gland secretion
and then sniffing their preorbital and supraoral areas. The male
mouth-wipes an oestrus female and sprays urine over her urine
as part of courtship. The adult male is most active in intraorbi-
tal and supraoral scent-marking while fighting and during the
mating season. The adult female more often marks the edges of
the home range than does the male. Dung is not used to scent-
mark. A likely explanation of scent-marking is that it reveals an
individual’s identity and status to conspecifics (Frädrich 1965;
Bradley 1968; Child et al. 1968; Cumming 1975, 2013; Estes et al.
1982; Mason 1982; Radke & Niemitz 1989; Somers et al. 1995).
Greeting between adult P. a f r i c a n u s involves slow move-
ment towards each other with outstretched necks, ears held flat
against the neck, and naso-nasal or naso-oral contact. Other
greetings include inspection of the intraorbital and supraoral
areas, naso-anal contact, gentle frontal pushing, and placing
the chin on the other’s back (Frädrich 1965; Cumming 1975).
Greeting juveniles commonly approach hesitantly, squeal and
retreat, followed by play, fighting, or separation (Somers et al.
1995; Skinner & Chimimba 2005).
Intraspecific threat by the adult male is displayed by raising
the mane and head, standing tall, and pressing the tail against
the flank that faces the opponent (Frädrich 1965; Cumming
1975; Somers et al. 1995). Standing apart at 0.5–1.0 m, they rush
towards each other, ears pointed forward, sniff each other in
a way similar to greeting, and commence head-to-head fight-
ing. Fighting is highly structured. Pushing and head-to-head
fights engage the bridge of the snout and the tusks with fierce
head kicks upwards and sidewards, hitting the opponent in
the face, neck, and sometimes the flanks (Cumming 1975;
Radke & Niemitz 1989; Radke 1991; Somers et al. 1995;
Skinner & Chimimba 2005).
Submissive P. a f r i c a n u s lower the head and may go down
on the wrists or lie down with the ears pointed backwards.
Retreating individuals sometimes walk backwards a short dis-
tance. They may exhibit ducking movement accompanied by
squealing and moving to the side. When fleeing a rival or preda-
tor, they typically trot with head straight and high, back rigid,
tail vertical, and mane erected (Cumming 1975, 2013; Somers
et al. 1995).
Adult males may attack other individuals and sounders at water
sources. Adult females chase others at burrows, and chase their
juvenile offspring 1–2 weeks before giving birth to the next litter
(Cumming 1975; Somers et al. 1995; Skinner & Chimimba 2005).
Phacochoerus africanus is less vocal than other suids. Adult
males produce a loud (audible >80 m), rhythmic ‘phut-phut’
(= ‘chant de coeur’) during courtship. Rhythmic grunts are
given by lactating females to their offspring, and during court-
ship and greeting. Single grunts, growls, or snorts are emitted
before attack, as a warning call, or before fleeing. Squeals are
produced before fleeing, when head-pushed by a conspecific,
when restricted, and when uncomfortable (Frädrich 1965;
Cumming 1975, 2013).Figure 9.6 Two subadult male
common warthogs Phacochoerus
africanus in a head-on-head play duel at
Kidepo Valley National Park, north-east
Uganda. Photograph by Yvonne de Jong
and Tom Butynski..01112:33:32