Chapter 9: Common warthog Phacochoerus africanus (Gmelin, 1788)97
(= sleeping sickness), a serious disease of humans and livestock.
Phacochoerus africanus is also a reservoir for T. brucei but seems
unaffected (Child et al. 1968; Vale & Cumming 1976; Anderson
et al. 2011).
Foot-and-mouth disease Aphthae epizooticae infects P. a f r i-
canus. Although most individuals recover, the level of morbidity
can be considerable (Domenech et al. 2010).
When P. a f r i c a n u s is at high density, it may serve as a ‘main-
tenance host’ for bovine tuberculosis Mycobacterium bovis, a
disease of humans and other mammals (Renwick et al. 2007;
De Garine-Wichatitsky et al. 2013).
The most important disease causing morbidity and mor-
tality in P. a f r i c a n u s appears to be rinderpest Morbillivirus sp.
Some populations have been greatly reduced by rinderpest
(Vercammen & Mason 1993). In 2010, the Global Rinderpest
Eradication Programme declared that the world was free of rin-
derpest (Domenech et al. 2010).
Over much of its range, P. a f r i c a n u s lives in close proximity
to people and their domestic animals (cattle, sheep, goats, cam-
els, donkeys, dogs), thereby providing considerable opportunity
for interspecific transfer of parasites and diseases.
Predators
The main predators are humans and lions. Some lions spe-
cialize in hunting P. a f r i c a n u s. Lions were responsible for
73–100 per cent of P. a f r i c a n u s kills at five sites. In north-west
Zimbabwe, lions accounted for 82 per cent of P. a f r i c a n u s kills;
50 per cent of lion diet (by body weight) consisted of P. a f r i-
canus. Here, about 33 per cent of P. a f r i c a n u s killed by lions
were dug out of burrows or killed as they emerged (Cumming
1975). Other predators include spotted hyaena, leopard
Panthera pardus, African wild dog Lycaon pictus, cheetah
Acinonyx jubatus, African rock python Python sebae, and Nile
crocodile Crocodylus niloticus (Pienaar 1969; Cumming 1975,
2013; Kingdon 1979; Boshe 1981; Grubb et al. 1998). Yellow
baboon Papio cynocephalus occasionally kill piglets and sub-
adults (W. Jubber, personal communication). Piglets are taken
by caracal Caracal caracal, jackals Canis spp. (Shortridge
1934; Skinner & Chimimba 2005), robust chimpanzee Pan
troglodytes (Uehara 1997), and large eagles (e.g. martial eagle
Polemaetus bellicosus; Cumming 2013).
Phacochoerus africanus has limited vision, but its senses
of smell and hearing are acute. It often responds to the alarm
calls of other species, particularly oxpeckers (Buphagus
spp.; Skinner & Chimimba 2005). Anti-predator behaviour
includes laying down in dense bush, fleeing (speed busts of
55 km/h), retreating to a burrow, and frequent participation
in polyspecific associations with species with higher preda-
tor detection capabilities (e.g. impala Aepyceros melampus,
savanna monkeys Chlorocebus spp., baboons; Bigourdan
1948; Cumming 1975; Somers et al. 1995; White & Cameron
2009; http://www.animalscoop.fr)..) They are occasionally successful
defending against humans, lion, leopard, cheetah, and wild
dog by charging, ramming with the snout, and slashing with
the lower tusks (Shortridge 1934; Skinner & Chimimba 2005;
Y. de Jong & T. Butynski, personal observation). Schaller
(1972) states that P. a f r i c a n u s is prone to lion predation due
to lack of caution. Others, however, view P. a f r i c a n u s as highly
cautious as it is often the first ungulate to flee a potential pred-
ator (J. P. d’Huart, personal communication; T. Butynski &
Y. de Jong, personal observation).Status in the Wild
IUCN Red List: ‘Least Concern’ (De Jong et al. 2016b). CITES:
not listed.
Phacochoerus africanus continues to be widespread, often
locally abundant, has a high reproductive rate, is expanding its
range in some places (e.g. Botswana, South Africa), and occurs
in many protected areas over much of its range. Nonetheless,
many populations are in decline due to habitat degradation,
fragmentation and loss as a result of expanding human and
livestock populations and resultant increased competition for
food and water. Poaching is also a problem in some regions, as
it is ineffectively managed in protected areas, including national
parks. It has considerable potential for game farming and meat
production (Vercammen & Mason 1993; De Leeuw et al. 2001;
Nyafu 2009, Cumming 2013; De Jong & Butynski 2014; De Jong
et al. 2016b; Swanepoel et al. 2016).Status in Captivity
Phacochoerus africanus is a popular zoo animal. As of January
2016, 72 facilities in Europe, Africa, South America, and North
America held 438 individuals. At least 201 of these are P. a. sun-
devallii (M. Zimmerman, personal communication). See table 7
at http://www.wildsolutions.nl/phacochoerus/. Some facilities may
not be aware that there are two Phacochoerus spp. All facili-
ties should check their collections for presence of P. aethiopicus
(Butynski & De Jong 2010).Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Lorna Depew, Carly Butynski, David
Cumming, and Jean-Pierre d’Huart for reviewing the manu-
script, and David Cumming and Jean-Pierre d’Huart for pro-
viding expertise and difficult-to-obtain references. We thank
all of the many people who provided personal communi-
cations, warthog locality records, and photographs. These
include Luca Borgesio, Alexandre Caron, James Culverwell,
Walter Jubber, Peter Cunningham, Charles Hash, Jeff Holland,
Graham Kerley, Jan de Leeuw, Kristin Leus, Peter Lindsey, Fiona
Maisels, David Mallon, Erik Meijaard, Patricia Moehlman,
Charles Hash, Ian Parker, Håkan Pohlstrand, Adam Pope, Lisa
Smith, Marc Stalmans, Emma Stokes, Dorian Tilbury, Paul
Vercammen, Stuart Williams, Merel Zimmerman, and Craig
Zitkow. Daniele Baisero kindly produced the geographic dis-
tribution map (Figure 9.1). We acknowledge the vital support
provided by Lolldaiga Hills Ranch during the preparation of
the manuscript..01112:33:32