Part II: Species Accounts272
many terrestrial bird species, e.g. razor-billed curacao, tinamous,
and mammals such as tapir, bats, and even primates have been
identified with camera traps visiting wallows either to forage or
drink water (Beck, personal observations).
Group size can vary largely (Table 25.3), with anecdotal
accounts of herds exceeding 2000 animals (Mayer & Wetzel
1987), but typically containing 20–300 animals (Kiltie &
Terborgh 1983; Mayer & Brandt 1987; Sowls 1997; Cullen et al.
2001; Reyna et al. 2009; Desbiez et al. 2010; Reyna-Hurtado et al.
2015). Peccaries also display fission and fusion behaviour and
thus can form even larger groups. During certain seasons of
the year, large herds can divide into smaller groups according
to the distribution and abundance of food, although the more
frequent reporting of smaller groups in some areas is probably
correlated with increased hunting pressure (Ditt 2002; Reyna-
Hurtado et al. 2015).
Keuroghlian et al. (2004) observed that a herd of 150
white-lipped peccaries in a fragmented area of Atlantic Forestperiodically divided into three or four subherds with an aver-
age of 42 individuals each. They also observed a high frequency
of switching of individuals among subherds and documented
periodic subherd fusion and fission. Switching of individuals
has also been observed in a current long-term (10 years) radio-
telemetry study in the Pantanal of Brazil (Keuroghlian et al.
2015) and in populations in Costa Rica (Sáenz & Carrillo 1999).
In the Pantanal, Biondo et al. (2011) analysed two different
populations which were 80 km apart and found a low degree
of genetic differentiation between the locations, and dispersal
by both sexes, contrary to the predicted male-biased dispersal
of most mammalian species (Greenwood 1980). In addition,
30 per cent of males and females were predicted to be dispersers,
which can indicate high levels of gene flow between the two dif-
ferent herds (Biondo et al. 2011).
Reyna-Hurtado et al. (2015) reported that smaller groups are
found near human settlements, while larger group size resides
more distantly from human settlements. In undisturbed areas,Table 25.3 Mean group size of white-lipped peccary in various locations with different levels of disturbance across its distribution. When available, SD is
provided in parentheses next to the mean (modified from Reyna-Hurtado et al. 2015).Site Country N Mean annual
temperature (°C)Mean annual
rainfall (mm)Mean group
size (SD)SourceNon-perturbed sites (sites with few or no human disturbances)*
Calakmul Biosphere
ReserveMexico 15 25.7 1076 23.3 (8.1) Reyna-Hurtado 2007Maya Biosphere Reserve Guatemala 12 25.3 1323 31.9 (13.1) Moreira-Ramírez 2009
Yasuni National Park Ecuador 1 25.1 2750 90.0 Reyna-Hurtado, unpublished
data
Los Amigos Biological
StationPeru 1 26.1 2750 100.0 Carrillo & Tobler, unpublished
data
Manu National Park Peru 8 28.2 2424 88.0 (19.7) Beck, unpublished data;
Kiltie & Terborgh 1983
Maraca Island Reserve Brazil 3 27.3 2300 125.3 (77.1) Fragoso 1998, 2004
Perturbed sites (sites with several human disturbances)*
Communal Forests
Southern MexicoMexico 12 24.2 1076 19.9 (7.8) Reyna et al. 2009Montes Azules
Biosphere ReserveMexico 13 23 3000 21.7 (12.9) Naranjo 2002Corcovado National Park Costa Rica 16 28.2 3400 36.2 (13.6) Altrichter & Almeida 2002;
Carrillo et al. 2002;
Estrada 2005
Hato Piñero Ranch Venezuela 7 27.5 1469 41.7 (23.2) Hernandez et al. 1995
Das Emas National Park Brazil 16 23.1 1600 70.0 (34.0) Almeida-Jácomo 2004
Caetetus Reserve,
Atlantic ForestBrazil 10 20.7 1400 41.7 Keuroghlian et al. 2004Central Pantanal
Nhumirim Ranch)Brazil 21 25.8 1226 34.2 Desbiez, unpublished dataPantanal (Nossa Sehora
do Carmo Ranch)Brazil 4 25.7 1172 88.0 Desbiez, unpublished dataEl Chaco Impenetrable
ForestArgentina 18 22.2 550 22.5 (14.2) Altrichter 2005El Chaco Humedo Argentina 14 22.2 825 23.2 Altrichter & Boaglio 2004
*See Reyna-Hurtado et al. (2015) for a full explanation of the division of non-perturbed and perturbed sites..02712:46:17