Chapter 31: Wild boar management in Europe347
the wild, they must be quarantined and examined before being
allowed into the park with other boar. In addition to the afore-
mentioned infectious diseases, pathogens (such as circovirus,
porcine herpesvirus, etc.) can infect the population. It is crucial
that none of the animals are infected with the tuberculosis patho-
gen. Diseases can cause significant losses in the stock of young ani-
mals during nurturing (Vicente et al. 2004; Kukushkin et al. 2009).
Faeces and blood sampling should be done at least once or
twice a year and should be sent to laboratories for examina-
tion. Wild boar placed under quarantine should be vaccinated
according to developed programmes. Boar in crates have to be
immobilized properly so that blood samples can be collected
for examination (Kukushkin et al. 2009). The laboratory checks
for antibodies against Mycobacterium sp. which marks the
contamination.
Deworming on a regular basis, although best when done out
of the hunting season, also plays an important role in hunting
parks. If the park also has reproducing individuals, deworm-
ing should also be done when the sow is gravid. The use of
Ivermectine during the hunting season is not advised because it
renders the meat unfit for human consumption for an extended
period of time afterwards (Syrjala et al. 2010).
In summary, hunting practice shows that hunting in wild
boar parks can play a significant role in hunting culture if the
parks are well-run by incorporating modern standards and
knowledge of animal health.
Consequences of Overpopulation and
Mitigation Measures
Forest Damage
Although they often prefer marshes where available, wild boar
are primarily a woodland species on the predominant territory
of Europe and are most successful in woodland dominated by
masting trees, particularly oak (Quercus spp.) and beech (Fagus
spp.) (Jędrzejewska et al. 1997). They are an omnivorous spe-
cies and generalist, opportunistic feeders; however, acorns and
beechnuts comprise a major part of their autumn diet where
available in every habitat from lowland to Alpine areas (Durio
et al. 1995; Fournier-Chambrillon et al. 1995). As a pulsed
resource consumer (see the overview of Ostfeld & Keesing 2000)
their reproduction strongly depends on the annual yield of for-
est tree seeds (Groot Bruinderink et al. 1994; Jędrzejewska et al.
1997; Cutini et al. 2013). Following a high production of mast,
wild boar exhibit higher body weight, an increase in breeding
females, and a larger litter size than in years when production of
these foods is low (Massei et al. 1996).
A significant ratio of the wild boar diet in March and April
may even consist of acorns through scavenging on hoards col-
lected by small mammals or birds such as the Eurasian jay.
Because this occurs during a critical period when female wild
boar are giving birth and lactating, this behaviour may strongly
influence the population dynamics of both wild boar and small
mammals (Focardi et al. 2000).
Although it is poorly documented, the effect of feeding in
forests by wild boar can be positive from an ecological point of
view. Rooting can improve seed germination (Haaverstada
et al. 2014) and can also enhance diversity of plant species and
improve the abundance of wild species (Welander 1995).
The efforts to create close-to-nature silviculture based on
natural regeneration are becoming increasingly vigorous on an
international scale (O’Hara 2001). Indeed, there are many exist-
ing options for silviculture that are not only ecologically but
also economically advantageous with self-regulating and self-
regenerating systems (Schütz 1999). The initial requirement to
perform natural regenerations in the most commonly found
hardwood tree stands in Europe, i.e. oak and beech, is adequate
mast production. However, wild boar are one of the main pred-
ators of oak and beech mast in the temperate climate zone in
Europe (Groot Bruinderink et al. 1994; Massei et al. 1996; Gómez
et al. 2003). The species can significantly reduce acorn survival
and, therefore, reduce the availability of acorns for germination
(Sweitzer & Van Vuren 2002). Moreover, even the sprouted seed-
lings can be damaged when wild boar uproot them to consume
the acorns (Gómez et al. 2003). As a consequence, the high den-
sity of wild boar and other ungulates can significantly set back
or even prevent the successful natural regenerations of oak and
beech (Herrera 1995; Groot Bruinderink & Hazebroek 1996b).
Performing natural regeneration is usually much more dif-
ficult in oak stands than in beech stands, even in the same area
(personal observations). Ungulates prefer oak mast and seed-
lings (Kullberg & Bergström 2001). In addition to this, heavy
beech mast crops occur more often and beech mast production
is higher when compared to oak (Schroeder & Vangilder 1997;
Standovár & Kenderes 2003).
Oak species usually have poor ability to regenerate natu-
rally (Watt 1919) mainly because of their intolerance to shad-
ing and drought (Larsen & Johnson 1998). In addition to this,
heavy acorn predation affecting the planned area of natural
regeneration can cause the reforestation to utterly collapse. In
these cases, the regeneration areas have to be fenced off to halt
acorn predation and browsing by ungulates, which selectively
affects oak. Often the missing acorns are supplemented by direct
seeding under the canopy cover (Lüpke 1998). As predation is
one of the main factors impeding acorns from producing seed-
lings even in the absence of wild boar (Shaw 1968), the missing
potential seedlings are often supplemented by young nursery
trees that are then planted under the canopy cover. However, it
is obvious that all of the methods that aim to achieve successful
natural regenerations in oak stands where abundant wild boar
populations are present substantially increase the costs of the
reforestation.Wild Boar–Vehicle Collisions
Accidents involving wild boar are on the rise throughout
Europe, although there is marked regional variation. Roe
deer is the species that is most frequently involved in ungulate
vehicle collisions in northern and central regions, where wild
boar is responsible for a small portion of the total accidents
(Groot Bruinderink & Hazebroek 1996a; Ignatavicius et al.
2011; Langbein et al. 2011). Nevertheless, a sharp increase in
wild boar accidents has been observed in some countries
such as Sweden where wild boar–vehicle collisions increased.03312:55:50