Part III: Conservation and Management442
ecological framework, are utterly crucial. However, it is surpris-
ing to see that there is a lack of research considering AMR in
wildlife, even when wild animals provide the biological means
to spread AMR bacteria and potentially constitute AMR hot-
spots (Allen et al. 2010).
In this context, wild boar have the potential to be reservoirs
and long-distant spreaders of AMR bacteria in the ecosystem.
Presently, the knowledge about the mechanisms that drive the
emergence and dissemination of resistant bacteria in wild boar
is scarce. Understanding to what extent this species contributes
to the spread of bacterial resistance genes is a challenging task,
to which the intersection of infectious disease ecology, land-
scape ecology, and microbiology will be essential. Predicting the
spread of AMR through the wildlife interface, and understand-
ing the underlying landscape-level determinants, is critical for
the identification of populations at risk, for mapping high-risk
areas and, consequently, for steering surveillance programmes
and designing proactive management actions. Priority actions
should also include containment of antibiotic use and disposal,
as well as risk management in areas under high selective pressure.
Answering all the questions posed in this chapter will
(1) from a theoretical point of view, unveil critical evolutionaryprocesses underlying the routes and transmission of antibiotic-
resistant bacteria that should be better and further understood,
and (2) on a more applied perspective, allow the implementa-
tion of monitoring and management guidelines to prevent
further contamination and circular transmission in the inter-
ception of human, animal and the environment, meeting the
overarching One Health approach that aims to ensure sectorial
coordination of the human, veterinary, and environment enti-
ties. The implementation of Commission Decision on the moni-
toring and reporting of antimicrobial resistance in zoonotic
and commensal bacteria (2013/652/EU), which is already in
action in several countries including Portugal, is a step forward
in this direction, as it aims at the harmonized monitoring and
reporting of Salmonella spp. and E. coli producing ESBL, AmpC
β-lactamases and carbapenemases in food-producing animals
and meat.
In addition to these initiatives, we restate that it is urgently
needed that each country implements a specific network for sur-
veillance of antibiotic use and bacterial resistance directed to
wild ungulates, particularly to wild boar, which will enhance the
ability to detect outbreaks, prevent ecological spread, and facili-
tate international collaboration and communication.References
Allen, H. K., Donato, J., Wang, H. H.,
et al. (2010). Call of the wild: antibiotic
resistance genes in natural environments.
Nature Reviews Microbiology 8: 251–259.
Allen, S. E., Boerlin, P., Janecko, N., et al.
(2011). Antimicrobial resistance in
generic Escherichia coli isolates from
wild small mammals living in swine
farm, residential, landfill, and natural
environments in southern Ontario,
Canada. Applied and Environmental
Microbiology 77(3): 882–888.
Barlow, M. (2009). What antimicrobial
resistance has taught us about horizontal
gene transfer. In Horizontal gene transfer:
genomes in flux. Totowa, NJ: Humana
Press, pp. 397–411.
Baums, C. G., Verkühlen, G. J., Rehm, T., et al.
(2007). Prevalence of Streptococcus suis
genotypes in wild boars of Northwestern
Germany. Applied and Environmental
Microbiology 73(3): 711–717.
Caleja, C., de Toro, M., Gonçalves, A., et al.
(2011). Antimicrobial resistance and
class I integrons in Salmonella enterica
isolates from wild boars and Bísaro pigs.
International Microbiology 14(1): 19–24.
Capita, R. & Alonso-Calleja, C. (2013).
Antibiotic-resistant bacteria: a challenge
for the food industry. Critical Reviews in
Food Science and Nutrition 53(1): 11–48.
Chiari, M., Zanoni, M., Tagliabue, S.,
Lavazza, A. & Alborali, L.G. (2013).
Salmonella serotypes in wild boars (Susscrofa) hunted in northern Italy. Acta
Veterinaria Scandinavica 55(1): 1.
Costa, D., Poeta, P., Sáenz, Y., et al. (2006).
Detection of Escherichia coli harbouring
extended-spectrum β-lactamases of the
CTX-M, TEM and SHV classes in faecal
samples of wild animals in Portugal.
Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy
58(6): 1311–1312.
D’Costa, V. M., Griffiths, E., & Wright, G. D.
(2007). Expanding the soil antibiotic
resistome: exploring environmental
diversity. Current Opinion in Microbiology
10(5): 481–489.
D’Costa, V. M., King, C. E., Kalan, L., et al.
(2011). Antibiotic resistance is ancient.
Nature 477(7365): 457–461.
Decastelli, L., Giaccone, V. & Mignone, W.
(2014). Bacteriological examination
of meat of wild boars shot down in
Piedmont and Liguria, Italy. Journal of
Mountain Ecology 3.
Dias, D., Torres, R. T., Fonseca, C., Mendo, S.,
& Caetano, T. (2015). Assessment of
antimicrobial resistance levels and
presence of pathogenic bacteria in
Portuguese wild ungulates. Research in
Microbiology 166(7): 584–593.
Díaz-Sánchez, S., Sánchez, S., Herrera-León, S.,
et al. (2013). Prevalence of Shiga toxin-
producing Escherichia coli, Salmonella
spp. and Campylobacter spp. in large
game animals intended for consumption:
relationship with management practicesand livestock influence. Veterinary
Microbiology 163(3): 274–281.
European Medicines Agency (EMA) &
European Centre for Disease Prevention
and Control (ECDC). (2009). The
bacterial challenge: time to react a call
to narrow the gap between multidrug-
resistant bacteria in the EU and
development of new antibacterial agents.
Stockholm.
European Medicines Agency (EMA) &
European Surveillance of Veterinary
Antimicrobial Consumption (ESVAC).
(2016). Sales of veterinary antimicrobial
agents in 29 European countries in 2014.
(EMA/61769/2016).
Fisher, K. & Phillips, C. (2009). The
ecology, epidemiology and virulence
of Enterococcus. Microbiology 155(6):
1749–1757.
Fonseca, C. & Correia, F. (2008).
O Javali. Colecção Património Natural
Transmontano. João Azevedo Editor.
[In Portuguese.]
Gilliver, M. A., Bennett, M. B., Hazel, S. M.
& Hart, C. A. (1999). Antibiotic resistance
found in wild rodents. Nature 401:
233–234.
Grave, K., Torren-Edo, J., Muller, A., et al.
(2014). Variations in the sales and sales
patterns of veterinary antimicrobial
agents in 25 European countries. Journal
of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy 69:
2284–2291..04013:02:28