are calculated in the supplementary text and
summarized in table S5. AVOCloss of 363 mV
is one of the lowest values reported among
inverted PSCs ( 16 , 26 ).
To investigate the effect of FcTc 2 functional-
ization on device stability, the efficiency evo-
lution under various conditions was monitored.
We first examined the long-term operational
stability of unencapsulated devices by loading
at MPP voltage under continuous 1-sun illu-
mination in an N 2 atmosphere (Fig. 4A). The
FcTc 2 -functionalized device retained its initial
PCE in the first 200 hours and only exhibited
a decay of <2% after >1500 hours. In compa-
rison, the control device decreased to 72% of
its initial PCE. We further measured the stab-
ility of unencapsulated devices under heat and
ambient conditions. As shown in figs. S27
and S28, the performance of the control de-
vices dropped to <80% of the initial efficiency
after >800 hours. By contrast, the FcTc 2 -
functionalized devices showed a T98 (time to
98% of initial PCE) of 2000 hours under an
ambient environment and 1500 hours under
continuous heating. Because the chemically
reactive components (such as MA+and I–) at
the perovskite surface can readily volatilize
and migrate through photo-, humidity, and
thermal degradation ( 27 , 28 ), we inferred that
FcTc 2 enhances stability through the forma-
tion of additional bonding with perovskite
surface ions and prevents any easily mobile
ions from migration.
Additionally, we conducted strict stability
measurements following the IEC61215:2016
standard, which is the most-used international
standard for mature photovoltaic technolo-
gies. As shown in Fig. 4B, the FcTc 2 -modified
devices exhibited a T95 of >1000 hours under
the damp heat test (85°C and 85% RH) and
thus successfully passed the main point of
IEC61215:2016 qualification for damp and heat
conditions. Moreover, under the cycle shocks
of cold (−40°C) and heat (85°C) shown in
Fig. 4C, >85% PCE was retained after 200 cy-
cles for the FcTc 2 -modified devices, outper-
forming the control devices (40% PCE retained
after 200 cycles). Taken together, these data
indicate that FcTc 2 -functionalized PSC devi-
ces exhibit excellent efficiency and stability
and have the potential to move toward com-
mercialization and rival traditional silicon
solar cells.
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Z.Z. thanks A. K.-Y. Jen and C. S. Lee for help and support.
Funding:This work was supported by the New Faculty Start-up
Grant of the City University of Hong Kong (9610421); the
Innovation and Technology Fund (ITS/095/20); the ECS grant
(21301319) and a GRF grant (11306521) from the Research Grants
Council of Hong Kong; the Natural Science Foundation ofGuangdong Province (2019A1515010761); and the Imperial College
London Frankland Chair Endowment. N.J.L. is grateful for a Royal
Society Wolfson Research Merit award.Author contributions:
Z.L., B.L., and X.W. contributed equally to this work. Z.Z. conceived
the ideas and designed the project with N.J.L. Z.Z. and N.J.L.
directed and supervised the research. Z.L. fabricated the devices,
conducted the characterization, and analyzed the data. B.L. and
X.W. also contributed to the characterization and data analyses.
N.J.L. and S.A.S. designed and synthesized the materials. S.Z.
conducted the DFT calculations. D.G. conducted the stability tests.
Z.L., B.L., X.W., N.J.L., and Z.Z. drafted and finalized the
manuscript. All the authors revised the manuscript.Competing
interests:A patent application based on this work has been submitted
by Imperial College London and City University of Hong Kong, led
by N.J.L. and Z.Z. The authors declare no other competing interests.
Data and materials availability:All data needed to evaluate the
conclusions in the paper are present in the paper or the
supplementary materials.SUPPLEMENTARY MATERIALS
science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abm8566
Materials and Methods
Supplementary Text
Figs. S1 to S28
Tables S1 to S5
References ( 29 – 44 )
21 October 2021; accepted 17 March 2022
10.1126/science.abm8566FISHERIESRapid evolution in salmon life history induced by
direct and indirect effects of fishing
Y. Czorlich1,2,3,4, T. Aykanat^3 , J. Erkinaro^2 , P. Orell^2 , C. R. Primmer3,5*Understanding the drivers of evolution is a fundamental aim in biology. However, identifying the
evolutionary impacts of human activities is challenging because of a lack of temporal data and limited
knowledge of the genetic basis of most traits. Here, we identify the drivers of evolution toward
maturity at an earlier age in Atlantic salmon through two types of fisheries-induced evolution acting in
opposing directions: an indirect effect linked with harvest of a salmon prey species (capelin) at sea
(selection against late maturation) and a direct effect due to net fishing in rivers (selection against early
maturation). Because capelin are harvested as an aquaculture feed protein source, we hereby determine
an indirect path by which salmon aquaculture may influence wild salmon populations.I
ndirect ecological effects (e.g., a third spe-
cies mediating the impact of one species
on another) ( 1 ) and their evolutionary im-
pacts have often been neglected in studies
of natural populations. For instance, fish-
ing can induce evolution of traits such as size
and age at maturity in the target species ( 2 , 3 )
but may also induce larger, ecosystem-level
changes, some of which may be indirect. How-
ever, cases demonstrating direct effects at the
genetic level are rare, as are empirical exam-ples of the indirect evolutionary impacts of
fishing ( 2 , 4 ). Knowledge of indirect ecological
and evolutionary effects is critical for properly
evaluating the consequences of different fish-
eries management strategies ( 5 ).
Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)haveacom-
plex life history, utilizing both freshwater and
marine habitats, and thus affect and are affected
by multiple ecosystems ( 6 ). Sea age is defined as
the number of years an individual spends in a
marine environment before returning to fresh
water to spawn. In Atlantic salmon, sea age at
maturity is an important life history trait that
exhibits an evolutionary trade-off between sur-
vival and reproduction. Individuals that mature
later are larger and have higher reproductive
success ( 7 ) but run a higher risk of mortality
before spawning. Age at maturity has been as-
sociated with a major effect locus in the ge-
nome region that includes thevgll3gene and420 22 APRIL 2022•VOL 376 ISSUE 6591 science.orgSCIENCE
(^1) University of Turku, Department of Biology, FI-20014 Turku,
Finland.^2 Natural Resources Institute Finland (Luke), POB 413,
FI-90014 Oulu, Finland.^3 University of Helsinki, Organismal &
Evolutionary Biology Research Programme, POB 56, FI-00014
Helsinki, Finland.^4 Norwegian Institute for Nature Research
(NINA), NO-7485 Trondheim, Norway.^5 University of Helsinki,
Institute of Biotechnology, Helsinki Institute of Life Science
(HiLIFE), POB 56, FI-00014 Helsinki, Finland.
*Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
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