Wrestling with Nature From Omens to Science

Science and the Public 371

Chemistry and Enlightenment in Britain, 1760–1820 (Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 1992), 197.

11. Golinski, Science as Public Culture, 285.


12. Alison Winter, “The Construction of Orthodoxies and Heterodoxies in the
    Early Victorian Life Sciences,” in Victorian Science in Context, ed. Bernard Lightman
    (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1997), 24–50.


13. Secord, Victorian Sensation, 223.


14. Richard Yeo, Defi ning Science: William Whewell, Natural Knowledge and the Public
    Debate in Early Victorian Britain (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 8.


15. Adrian Desmond, The Politics of Evolution: Morphology, Medicine, and Reform in
    Radical London (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1989).


16. Richard John Noakes, “‘Cranks and Visionaries’: Science, Spiritualism and
    Transgression in Victorian Britain” (PhD diss., Cambridge, 1998), 23.


17. Iwan Rhys Morus, Frankenstein’s Children: Electricity, Exhibition, and Experiment
    in Early- Nineteenth Century London (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998).


18. Noakes, “‘Cranks and Visionaries,’” 25.


19. Beatrice Webb, My Apprenticeship, 2nd ed. (London: Longmans, Green & Co.,
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20. W. K. Clifford, “On the Aims and Instruments of Scientifi c Thought,” in Lec-
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    & Co., 1886), 86.


21. Thomas H. Huxley, Method and Results (New York: Appleton & Company,
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22. Turner, Between Science and Religion, 9, 24.


23. Ruth Barton, “The X Club: Science, Religion, and Social Change in Victorian
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    bock, and Half a Dozen Others’: Professionals and Gentlemen in the Formation of the
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    Network of Science in Late- Victorian England,” Notes and Records of the Royal Society of
    London 24 (1970): 305–22; J. Vernon Jensen, “Interrelationships within the Victorian
    ‘X Club,’” Dalhousie Review 51 (Winter 1971–72): 539–52.


24. Frank M. Turner, “The Victorian Confl ict between Science and Religion: A
    Professional Dimension,” in Contesting Cultural Authority: Essays in Victorian Intellectual
    Life (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993), 171–200.


25. Adrian Desmond, “Redefi ning the X Axis: ‘Professionals,’ ‘Amateurs’ and the
    Making of Mid- Victorian Biology A Progress Report,” Journal of the History of Biology 34
    (2001): 3–50.


26. Secord, Victorian Sensation, 403; Alison Winter, Mesmerized: Powers of Mind in
    Victorian Britain (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1998), 300.


27. George H. Daniels, “The Process of Professionalization in American Sci-
    ence: The Emergent Period, 1820–1860,” in Science in America Since 1820, ed. Nathan
    Reingold (New York: Science History Publications, 1976), 63, 66, 70; see also Robert V.
    Bruce, The Launching of Modern American Science 1846–1876 (New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
    1987).


28. Marc Rothenberg, “Gould, Benjamin Apthorp,” in American National Biography,