Wrestling with Nature From Omens to Science

Natural Knowledge in the Classical World 57

5. J. Barnes, ed., The Complete Works of Aristotle (Princeton, NJ: Princeton Univer-
   sity Press, 1984), 2483.


6. Y. L. Too, Education in Greek and Roman Antiquity (Leiden: Brill, 2001).


7. M. Griffi n and J. Barnes, eds., Philosophia togata (Oxford: Oxford University
   Press, 1989); K. Algra, et al., eds., The Cambridge History of Hellenistic Philosophy (Cam-
   bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999); J. M. Dillon and A. A. Long, eds., The Ques-
   tion of “Eclecticism” (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988).


8. See, e.g., A. Jones, “The Adaptation of Babylonian Methods in Greek Numerical
   Astronomy,” Isis 82 (1991): 441–53.


9. Aristotle, On the Heavens 1.5.


10. Aristotle, Physics 3.5; cf. Aristotle On the Heavens 3.6.


11. For an overview, see G. Lloyd, Early Greek Science: Thales to Aristotle (London:
    Chatto and Windus, 1970).


12. Aristotle, Physics 8.8; Aristotle On the Heavens 1.2.


13. Aristotle, Physics 8.8.


14. See also Aristotle, On the Heavens 2.4.


15. See S. Bobzien, Determinism and Freedom in Stoic Philosophy (Oxford: Oxford
    University Press, 1998).


16. See Lucretius, On the Nature of Things 1.958–1051.


17. Epicurus, Letter to Herodotus, in Diogenes Laertius 10.79f; Lucretius On the
    Nature of Things 5.509–770.


18. Ptolemy, Almagest 1.1. Here and throughout, translation modifi ed slightly from
    G. J. Toomer, Ptolemy’s Almagest (London: Duckworth, 1984).


19. Ptolemy, Almagest 1.1.


20. Ibid.


21. A. Barker, Scientifi c Method in Ptolemy’s Harmonics (Cambridge: Cambridge Uni-
    versity Press, 2000); D. Lehoux, ‘Observers, Objects, and the Embedded Eye; Or, Seeing
    and Knowing in Ptolemy and Galen,’ Isis 98 (2007): 447–67.


22. On Aristotle’s biology, see J. G. Lennox, Aristotle’s Philosophy of Biology: Studies
    in the Origins of Life Science (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).


23. Aristotle, Metaphysics 9.8. See also Metaphysics 12.6.


24. Aristotle, Physics 2.1.


25. See, e.g., A. Ariew, R. Cummins, and M. Perlman, eds., Functions: New Essays in
    the Philosophy of Psychology and Biology (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002).


26. See, e.g., Theophrastus, On the Causes of Plants 1.


27. See V. Nutton, Ancient Medicine (New York: Taylor and Francis, 2004).


28. H. von Staden, Herophilus: The Art of Medicine in Early Alexandria (Cambridge:
    Cambridge University Press, 1989).


29. See, e.g., A. Barker, Scientifi c Method in Ptolemy’s Harmonics (Cambridge: Cam-
    bridge University Press, 2000).


30. Galen, On the Usefulness of the Parts of the Body 1.10–11. Here and throughout,
    translation from M. T. May, Galen: On the Usefulness of the Parts of the Body (Ithaca, NY:
    Cornell University Press, 1968), slightly modifi ed.


31. Galen, On the Usefulness of the Parts of the Body 1.11.


32. H. von Staden, “Anatomy as Rhetoric: Galen on Dissection and Persuasion,”
    Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences 50 (1995): 47–66.