239high renewal capacity, expression of embryonic markers, multipotency to differenti-
ate in different cell lines, low immunogenicity, anti-inflammatory properties, nontu-
morigenicity, and noninvasive isolation (Kim et al. 2014 ; Antonucci et al. 2012 ).
Regarding to this easily sample collection, the amniotic membrane are available for
sampling just after the parturition avoiding all political and ethical restrictions
involved with embryonic SC.
Histologically, the amniotic membrane is composed by a very thin cubic epithe-
lial layer, a subjacent mesoderm and dispersed small blood vessels (Fig. 12.2a, b).
In contrast to the very simple histological nature (Chang et al. 2010 ), recently data
have shown data amniotic-derived stem cells (Fig. 12.2c) collect in different gesta-
tional stages present different pattern of phenotype, methylation, immunomodula-
tory and stemness properties of amniotic-derived SC (Barboni et al. 2014 ), which
are closely related to the microenvironment of this extraembryonic membrane and
its functions in the different gestational phases.
The human amniotic membrane derived SC were isolated for the first time in
2004 and demonstrated the ability to differentiate into osteogenic and adipogenic
cell lines (In ‘t Anker et al. 2004 ). Later, it was also demonstrated the ability of these
cells for differentiation in other cell lines, such as chondrogenic in dogs (Vidane
et al. 2014 ; Rutigliano et al. 2013 ) and neurogenic in sheep (Zhu et al. 2013 ).
In clinical practice, the potential of amniotic membrane derived SC is very wide
and increasing, and their clinical applications can reach a variety of diseases, espe-
cially those associated with degenerative processes induced by inflammatory and
fibrotic processes (Parolini and Caruso 2011 ). In this regard, the clinical applica-
tions of amniotic membrane SC show satisfactory therapeutic results, without toxic-
ity or side effects. Studies using monkeys have demonstrated the usefulness of these
cells for the treatment of injured areas of the spinal cord in the central nervous
system, resulting in the regeneration of neurons (Sankar and Muthusamy 2003 ).
Additionally, studies have shown satisfactory results for the treatment of Parkinson
in rat models using amniotic membrane SC in order to produce dopamine and pre-
vent neuronal degeneration (Kakishita et al. 2003 ). In vivo studies in rats also
showed that after inoculation, the amniotic SC were able to restore liver function
(Miki et al. 2007 ). In addition, transplantation in immunodeficient rats with liver
problems showed evidences of synthesis and excretion of albumin after 7 days of
cell transplantation (Sakuragawa et al. 2000 ). Amniotic membrane SC expressed
pancreatic markers such as α2B amylase and produced glucagon, after being
induced to pancreatic differentiation (Ilancheran et al. 2007 ). Transplantation of
amniotic membrane SC showed also satisfactory clinical results for the treatment of
pulmonary disease (Insausti et al. 2010 ; Magatti et al. 2009 ) and diabetes mellitus
(Uccelli et al. 2008 ).
For this reason, the amniotic membrane emerged as a new and important source
of SC established in several species including human (In ‘t Anker et al. 2004 ; Díaz-
Prado et al. 2011 ), horse (Cremonesi et al. 2011 ; Lange-Consiglio et al. 2012 ),
sheep (Mauro et al. 2010 ), cat (Vidani et al. 2016 ; Vidane et al. 2014 ; Rutigliano
et al. 2013 ), dog (Uranio et al. 2011 ), rat (Marcus et al. 2008 ) and rabbit (Borghesi
et al. 2017 ) with different patterns of phenotype and differentiation potential, which
12 Fetal Membranes-Derived Stem Cells Microenvironment