provide training and information about pesticides used on crops, protective clothing,
waiting periods for reentry into treated fields, and hand-washing facilities in the field.
But the EPA amended WPS in 1996. Under the amended standards, workers who
had never received pesticide training could work five days in the fields without any
information about the dangers. The new standards also reduced the number of days
that growers must provide water for hand washing (one gallon for every worker) from
one gallon a day to one gallon every seven days for certain pesticides. Two years after
the EPA relaxed the standards, skin rashes reported by field workers began to climb.
In 1998, the rate was about eleven cases per 10,000 workers. By 2001, the rate had
jumped to nearly twenty-seven cases per 10,000 workers, among the highest for any
occupation, according to the Bureau of Labor Statistics.^59Is Organic the Answer?Organic agriculture is the oldest form of agriculture on Earth. Farming without
the use of petroleum-based chemicals (such as fertilizers and pesticides) was the sole
option until after World War II. The war brought with it technologies that were use-
ful for agricultural production. For example, ammonium nitrate used for munitions
during the war evolved into ammonium nitrate fertilizer; organophosphate nerve gas
production led to the development of powerful insecticides. The technical advances
since World War II have resulted in significant economic benefits as well as environ-
mental and social detriments. Organic agriculture seeks to utilize those advances that
consistently yield benefits, including new varieties of crops, precision agricultural
technologies, and more efficient machinery, while discarding those methods that have
led to negative impacts on society and the environment, such as pesticide pollution
and insect resistance. Instead of using synthetic fertilizers and pesticides, organic
farmers utilize crop rotations, cover crops, and naturally based products to maintain
or enhance soil fertility. These farmers rely on biological, cultural, and physical meth-
ods to limit pest expansion and increase populations of beneficial insects on their
farms.
Farmers have been developing organic farming systems in the United States for
decades. State and private institutions have also emerged to set organic farming stan-
dards and provide third-party verification of label claims. Legislation requiring national
organic farming standards was passed in the 1990s. More U.S. producers are consider-
ing organic farming systems in order to lower input costs, conserve nonrenewable
resources, capture high-value markets, and boost farm income.
Traditionally, organic farms have been smaller than conventional operations. This
has been due in part to labor requirements. Organic systems are generally more
labor intensive. Studies have found that about 11 percent more labor was required
per unit of production in field crops.^60 This difference can be much greater in fruit
and vegetable crops, and farm size may be limited accordingly. However, techno-
logical innovations in organic horticultural production are helping to narrow the
gap. Organic systems are also more information intensive, requiring additional56 | Pesticides