116 / Conclusion
Birds, Marine Mammals, and Wildlife
The issue of oil spills raises unique problems. Whereas in some
cases our individual actions can improve animal welfare in disas-
ters, we cannot escape our reliance on petroleum. More specifi cally,
our actions at the gas pump cannot prevent a technological catas-
trophe such as a tanker accident. Reducing the amount of oil we
consume is a good idea, but it will not prevent spills. The issue of
oil spills raises specifi c issues for shipping safety, and I address
some of these in Chapter 3. The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 set the
United States on the path to reducing oil spills and improving spill
response, and the convention known as MARPOL 73/78 did the
same for international waters. The mandate to make polluters lia-
ble for the costs of clean up provides a strong disincentive to spill-
ing. Some scholars argue that although the “polluter pays” policy
has decreased the number of high volume spills, it in turn has pro-
vided a false sense of security that has decreased the ability to
respond when a spill does occur.^7 The mandated phase-in to dou-
ble-hulled tankers also offers some protection, but as the 2015 dead-
line approaches, oil companies have used every available loophole
to avoid compliance. ConocoPhillips is the only company to have
replaced all its vessels as of 2008.^8 Meanwhile, the national energy
policy must emphasize cleaner, more effi cient energy, rather than
petroleum exploration and production. Besides reducing the risk of
oil spills, an emphasis on cleaner, more effi cient energy is our only
hope to slow global climate change, which may be increasing the
number and severity of natural disasters. This step will require pro-
viding incentives to corporations and individuals who develop and
invest in clean energy sources. Although soaring prices provided a
strong fi nancial reason to minimize petroleum usage during 2008,
global energy demands will increase regardless of price. The fate of
marine birds and animals, and indeed of the entire planet, depends
largely on how we power the future.
In addition to the issues of cleaner energy, the discussion of
how to reduce the harm to birds and animals through exposure to
oil raises the broader question of what we should do for wildlife