Birds and Marine Wildlife / 63cise data on the numbers of birds and animals affected by oil spills,
but the annual fi gure is surely in the billions. The majority of cata-
strophic spills, and those that make the news, occur from ground-
ings or collisions of ships that are either transporting oil or leak fuel
oil because of damage.^6 A brief list of the high-profi le spills illus-
trates the scope of the issue. In 1978, the Amoco Cadiz ran aground
and split in two off the coast of Brittany. The tanker spilled 223,000
tons of heavy crude oil into the Atlantic Ocean. Rescuers recov-
ered 20,000 dead birds; marine life in the area suffered tremen-
dous mortality. The Exxon Valdez spill in 1989 killed an estimated
quarter of a million birds, as well as countless sea otters, harbor
seals, salmon, and creatures in the supporting food chain. In 1999,
the tanker Erika broke in two and sank off the French coast, affect-
ing an estimated 77,000 birds, most of whom did not survive. In
2000, the freighter MV Treasure sank off the coast of South Africa,
contaminating over 20,000 African penguins, whose worldwide
numbers are estimated at only 180,000. The rescue and rehabilita-
tion effort was unprecedented in its size. It occurred just six years
after the sinking of the tanker Apollo Sea in the same area contami-
nated 10,000 African penguins. In 2002, the sinking of the crude oil
tanker Prestige off the coast of Spain and Portugal topped the Exxon
Valdez as the worst spill and possibly the worst ecological disaster
in history. As many as 300,000 sea birds died as a result.^7
Accidents make the news and the images of blackened birds
and spoiled coastlines cause public outrage. However, most petro-
leum pollution comes from “small but frequent” discharges of oil
from various sources.^8 Some are land-based, such as the portion that
comes from improperly disposed motor oil, highway run-off, and
leakage from recreational boats. Others sources of oil are sea-based.
A signifi cant portion comes from standard shipping practices, such
as loading or discharging at ports or the washing of tanks at sea.
The industry considers these “operational spills” rather than acci-
dents.^9 They seldom make the news, but they take a toll on birds
and animals. For example, about forty-two thousand Magellanic
penguins die annually just along one stretch of the coast of north-