Th e Uses of Th eory 7
formal meanings of the term, has the following three meanings. First, in the natu-
ral and physical sciences, theory means a rigorous testing of predictive theorems
or hypotheses using observable and comparable data. Th ese hypotheses, once
tested and verifi ed, form the basis of theories, assertions, or representations of
reality. Th eory in the natural or physical sciences can claim considerable accuracy
in representing reality because the classifi cation of order in the physical world is
advanced, as are capacities to recognize and measure natural phenomena. Th e-
ory, thus derived, oft en serves as a highly reliable guide for action. In the social
world, of which public administration is a part, the problems of recognizing pat-
terns, designing categories, and measuring and comparing phenomena are much
greater. Th erefore, the aims of theory in public administration are diff erent (and,
some would say, lower).
Second, theory in the social sciences and in public administration means the
ordering of factual material (history, events, cases, stories, measures of opinion,
observation) so as to present evidence through defi nitions, concepts, and meta-
phors that promote understanding. To be sure, this understanding is, at least in
part, subjective, because it was constructed by the theorist. Th is theory is based on
the rigorous and intuitive observation of social behavior, organizational behavior,
institutional dynamics, political systems and behavior, patterns of communica-
tion, and culture. We will argue here that theory derived from such observation is
basic to all action in public administration. Most of this action is not formally and
explicitly acknowledged as driven by a particular theory. Public administration
decisions and action are, nevertheless, based on fundamental assumptions about
social behavior, patterns of human cooperation, incentives for action, and the
like. Because of this, one of the primary tasks of theory in public administration
is to make explicit and describe the assumptions that guide action and to develop
the categories, concepts, defi nitions, and metaphors that foster an understanding
of those assumptions.
Th ird, in public administration the meaning of theory is normative—theories
of what ought to be. Th ese theories form the bridges among public administra-
tion, political science, and philosophy. Dwight Waldo (1946) taught us that all
theories of public administration are also theories of politics. Public adminis-
tration practice is a busy and untidy world in which costs and benefi ts, all nor-
matively based in nature and eff ort, are allocated among citizens through the
authority of the state. Th eories of public administration guide the authoritative
allocation of public goods. Once again, the task of the theorist is oft en to discover
theory that accounts for or describes observable regularities in behavior and to
evaluate the normative implications of such behavior. It is oft en true that public
administration theorists use a mix of the second and third defi nitions of theory.
Th e meaning of theory in public administration is more than just a question
of how rigorous the measurement and how precise the observation are. Th eory is
classifi ed by the form, degree, or nature of its elaboration. For example, some the-
ory simply presents methodological questions, such as the debate over so-called