The Expanded Self: Society as Self 267“9x6” b2726 Self and the Phenomenon of Life: A Biologist Examines Life from Molecules to HumanityBy contrast, the degree of flexibility in the group behavior of humans
is enormous. It would be a grave mistake to literally extrapolate social
order from insects to humans. Unlike social insects, human groups can
be formed or dismantled in the blink of an eye, based on changes in the
self-interests of the constituents. We see this frequently among nations.
For example, when World War II was raging, the United States and Japan
fought tooth and nail. But as soon as the war was over, a new alliance was
forged between the two almost overnight against the threat of the Soviet
Union. On a personal level, an individual can at once be a member of sev-
eral social groups — the same man can play the role of a loving husband,
a stern father, a strict law enforcer, a friendly waiter, or a congenial sales
person, depending on the time of day or the uniform he dons.
12.6 Forces Enhancing Social Cohesion
In order to reap the benefits of a group, humans need to partially sup-
press their idiosyncrasies and the tendency to seek individual freedom.
Thus, in a society, we are both submissive and rebellious. Social cohesion
and individual liberty are the antitheses that have to be adjusted and
balanced in order to arrive at a harmonious society.
What holds the selves together is what I call “social glue.” The soci-
eties of honeybees, ants and termites make use of the most primitive of
“glues” — the genes and chemical messages (pheromones). The bonding
forces in human societies are much more complex, covering the entire
gamut of biological and cultural factors, from genetics to physiology,
biochemistry, psychology, education, social custom, mythology, religion,
and all of civilization. The important factors are reviewed below. Note
that some of these factors apply to lower animals as well.
12.6.1 Genetic factors: Instinct and conscience
As discussed above, cooperation among close relatives is only part of the
story. In a heterogeneous society, humans have an instinctive propensity