280 Self and the Phenomenon of Life
b2726 Self and the Phenomenon of Life: A Biologist Examines Life from Molecules to Humanity “9x6”on extant hunter-gatherers. Primitive humans followed a set of strict
social rules, the most severe being the taboos, violations of which met
with severe punishment. Everyday behavior was shaped by customs and
justified by mythology and legends, frequently associated with supernat-
ural or invisible agents. Children emulated the behavior of their elders.
Above all there was an inborn sense of conscience, which was spontane-
ous and intuitive. As societies grew in size, powerful rulers dominated
the group and promulgated laws to be followed. Laws are based on pre-
vailing moral norms but differ from the latter mainly in the clarity of
content and in defining the degree of punishment for the violators.
Since the age of Enlightenment of the eighteenth century, the con-
cept of social contract started to replace the system of absolute monarchy.^42
Social contract stresses that individuals give up some of their freedom to
a group, which governs for the benefit of the individuals. The individuals
choose their government and agree to abide by a set of rules, while the lat-
ter serves as an agent. The system starts with the interests of the individuals
and ends with the individuals, leading to a democratic society. Neverthe-
less, democracy works best if the majority is well educated and not exces-
sively selfish. Absolute freedom and total equality are mutually exclusive;
in a democratic society a compromise between the two is necessary.
12.10 Foundations of Moral Code and the Human Nature
Following are some theories on the source and nature of moral code:
12.10.1 Aristotelian view
The purpose of life is to pursue happiness, which can be achieved only
by rational thinking and following the middle course (golden mean) of
action — neither excessive nor too little.
12.10.2 Kantian view
Morality is a “categorical imperative,” meaning that it is a universal good-
will intrinsic to humans, an end in itself irrespective of the consequences.