bureaucracy appears to be simply a form of organization. But, as the great sociolo-
gist Max Weber understood, it is by embedding power in formal rules and procedures
that it is most efficiently exercised. Bureaucracies are thus the most efficient organi-
zations in getting things done andfor maintaining the power of those at the top.
Characteristics of Bureaucracies.Max Weber is credited with first describing the
essential characteristics of bureaucracies (Weber 1978 edition). While these charac-
teristics are not necessarily found in every single bureaucratic
organization, they represent the ideal typeof bureaucracy, an abstract
mental concept of what a pure version of the phenomenon (in this case
a bureaucracy) would look like:
1.Division of labor. Each person in a bureaucratic organization has a
specific role to play, a specific task to perform. People often become
specialists, able to perform a few functions exceptionally well, but
they might be unable to do what their colleagues or co-workers do.
2.Hierarchy of authority. Positions in a bureaucracy are arranged ver-
tically, with a clear reporting structure, so that each person is under
the supervision of another person. Those at the top have power over
those below them, all along what is often called the “chain of com-
mand.” The chain of command is impersonal; the slots held by indi-
viduals are independent of the individual occupying the position. If your
supervisor leaves a position to move to another part of the company, you no
longer report to that person. You report to the new holder of the position of super-
visor. The hierarchy of a bureaucratic organization often resembles a pyramid
(Figure 3.3).
3.Rules and regulations. Those in the hierarchy do not exert power on a whim:
They follow clearly defined rules and regulations that govern the conduct of each
specific position in the organization and define the appropriate procedures for
the function of each unit and the organization as a whole. These rules and regu-
lations are formalized, “codified” (organized into a coherent structure), and writ-
ten down, which further reduces the individual discretion supervisors may have
and increases the formal procedures of the organization.4.Impersonality. Formal and codified rules and regulations and a hierarchy of posi-
tions (instead of people) lead to a very impersonal system. Members of bureaucratic
organizations are detached and impersonal, and interactions are to be
guided by instrumental criteria—what is the right and appropriate deci-
sion for the organization, according to its rules, not how a particular
decision might make you feel. There is a strict separation of personal
and official business and income.5.Career ladders. Bureaucratic organizations have clearly marked
paths for advancement, so that members who occupy lower positions
on the hierarchy are aware of the formal requirements to advance.
They thus are more likely to see their participation as “careers” rather
than as “jobs” and further commit themselves to the smooth function-
ing of the organization. Formal criteria govern promotion and hiring;
incumbents cannot leave their positions to their offspring.6.Efficiency. The formality of the rules, the overarching logic of ration-
ality, the clear chain of command, and the impersonal networks enable
bureaucracies to be extremely efficient, coordinating the activities of
a large number of people.ORGANIZATIONS 95Although the French invented the word
bureaucracy, the Chinese are credited
with perfecting the practice. During the
Song dynasty (AD420–479), the emperor
developed a centralized bureaucracy, staffed
with civilian scholar-officials. This led to a
much greater concentration of power than
had ever been achieved before.Didyouknow
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FIGURE 3.3Hierarchy of
Authority