Sociology Now, Census Update

136 CHAPTER 4HOW DO WE KNOW WHAT WE KNOW? THE METHODS OF THE SOCIOLOGIST

KeyTerms

Causality (p. 127)
Cluster sample (p. 119)
Content analysis (p. 124)
Confounding variables (p. 112)
Control group (p. 112)
Correlation (p. 131)
Data (p. 106)
Deductive reasoning (p. 106)
Dependent variable (p. 110)
Detached observation (p. 114)
Ethnography (p. 115)

Experiment (p. 112)

Experimental group (p. 112)

Extraneous variables (p. 112)

Hypothesis (p. 110)

Generalizability (p. 124)

Independent variable (p. 110)

Inductive reasoning (p. 107)

Interviews (p. 112)

Likert scale (p. 119)

Literature review (p. 112)

Participant observation (p. 114)

Predictability (p. 127)

Purposive sample (p. 117)

Qualitative methods (p. 107)

Quantitative methods (p. 107)

Random sample (p. 119)

Sample (p. 119)

Secondary analysis (p. 122)

Stratified sample (p. 119)

Subjectivity (p. 104)

Surveys (p. 118)

Verstehen (p. 107)

define your topic in a meaningful and manageable way.

Next, review the literature to see what has been done on

the subject and what gaps exist in the research, and

if you are engaging in deductive research, develop a

hypothesis. Design your project based on the most suit-

able methodology. Collect data; then analyze the data

using a method appropriate to your data collection strat-

egy. Finally, report your findings.

3.What types of research do sociologists do? Sociologists

use one of two basic types of research methods, one that

involves observation of behavior, and one that involves

analysis of accumulated data. Participant observation

involves observing behavior in real-life situations, where

the researcher relies on himself to interpret what is hap-

pening while trying to see phenomena from the point of

view of those being observed. Sometimes a researcher

will live for a period with the group she is studying; this

is called ethnography. Interviews involve asking a small

group of individuals who are purposively sampled with

open-ended questions. Surveys are characterized by ask-

ing a large number of people closed-ended questions; the

results are used to analyze patterns and to generalize to

the larger population. Content analysis involves looking

at objects such as text, photos, books, and the like.

4.How does social science handle the problem of “truth”?

Sociologists try to approach truth by addressing pre-

dictability and causality. Predictability is important to

social scientists because if we can understand how vari-

ables affect behavior, attitudes, and beliefs, then we can

predict how one will act, think, or feel. Predictability is

never completely accurate, so sociologists speak in terms

of probability. Causality refers to one event being the

direct result of another event or variable. In order to

have causality, you must have certain conditions. First,

variableBhas to come after variable Ain time. Next,

there must be a high correlation between variable Aand

variableB.Also, one must account for any possible

extraneous variables that might be having an effect on

variableB.Finally, one must look to see if there is an

observer effect contaminating the data.

5.What are some issues sociologists encounter in conduct-

ing research? If statistical data can be manipulated to

support any point of view, then how do we know what

reports to trust and what not to trust? Sociologists pub-

lish their research results in peer-reviewed journals. In

addition to peer review, sociologists strive to be objec-

tive and to avoid bias. This means making sure your own

prejudices and assumptions do not contaminate your

research. In addition to the possibility of your own bias

contaminating the research, the research design itself

may be biased, which means it may corrupt your results

and make them invalid. To counter this, sociologists

avoid overstating their results, avoid attributing causal-

ity to a correlation, and maintain professional ethics.

6.What methodologies are emerging in sociology? Tech-

nology is constantly advancing, and research methods

keep pace. Telephone sampling has moved from using a

random sampling of names listed in the phone book to

random-digit dialing by computer. Field experiments use

matched pairs and random assignment to infer causal-

ity. This type of study is often used to uncover hidden

biases. In addition to developing new methodologies,

social scientists are using new technology to refine and

improve old methodologies. The Internet probably pro-

vides the best possibilities for new data collection and

research techniques, as it provides unprecedented access

to data and to individuals.