tremendously from those of teenagers and adults. They do not work; they have no
interest in dating or romance; they play with toys and go to school. They are frag-
ile and innocent. They must be shielded from the bad aspects of life, like sex and
death. They need constant adult supervision and care.
Although this notion of childhood seems like common sense, it is not universal.
It does not occur in every culture, and even in the modern West, it has evolved rela-
tively recently, during the past few centuries. In earlier eras, children were considered
miniature adults. As soon as they were able to walk, they went to work alongside the
adults, merely getting more difficult and complex tasks as they grew older. There are
countries in the world today where children still work full time, sometimes in phys-
ically demanding and dangerous jobs.
There was no knowledge considered inappropriate for the children of earlier eras.
Sex and death happened openly, in front of them, and sometimes with them. Aries
(1962) records that when King Louis XIV of France (1638–1715) was a child, the
courtiers openly engaged in sexual horseplay with him, grabbing and fondling his pri-
vate parts and discussing their sexual function. Today they would be required to reg-
ister as sex offenders, but in the seventeenth century it was considered completely
appropriate.
Industrialization changed the way we see childhood. No longer were children seen
as “little adults” but as innocents, needing protection and guidance. Without their
parents—without socialization—they would not grow up to be healthy grownups.
And thus parents were seen as having specialized knowledge and heightened respon-
sibilities. Some observers suggest that modern media, television, video games, and the
Internet are shrinking childhood itself, so soon there may again be no knowledge that
is considered inappropriate for children.Adolescence (Roughly the Teen Years)
Biological changes that occur in puberty are universal, but the timing
changes from culture to culture and over time. A century ago, most girls
did not experience menarche (their first menstruation) until they were 17
or 18, but today it often comes at age 11 or 12. The cultural boundaries
of adolescence are even more variable.
Psychologists early in the twentieth century began to define adoles-
cence as a stage of life in modern societies, when children, especially from
affluent groups, need training to compete in specialized job markets, so
they stay out of the workforce for several years past puberty. During this
time, they have a great deal of freedom to make their own choices about
their friends and activities, and they often explore their political, social,
sexual, and religious identities: You are more likely to leave your religion,
or convert to a new religion, in adolescence than at any other time in your
life. But they still must live under the supervision of adults, parents or
guardians, who have the final say in decisions. They do not have the
responsibilities of adults, nor do they enjoy many adult privileges. In the
United States, most adolescents do not work full time; their criminal acts
receive different punishments from those of adults; and they are forbid-
den from marrying, having sexual relations, signing contracts, purchas-
ing real estate, entering military service, and drinking alcohol.
In earlier eras, a girl became a woman when she married, usually in
her early 20s, and a boy became a man when he entered the working
world—on the farm, in the factory, or apprenticed to a trade. This usually
occurred before his fifteenth birthday. As late as 1920, only 16 percent of158 CHAPTER 5SOCIALIZATION
Initiation rituals provide a cultural
mechanism for members of a particular
culture, usually males, to pass from one
developmental stage (youth) to adulthood.
In some East African cultures, for example,
12-year-old boys live alone and isolated for
four years. When they return, they are
circumcised without anesthesia by a stone
knife. They must not flinch. Pueblo Indian
(Hopi, Zuni) kachinas whip the boys with
yucca whips until they bleed (kachinas are
animal-human hybrids, also elders in
disguise). Others use nasal incision to
stimulate bleeding.
Like these other cultures, American
adolescent males have devised numerous
risky and often grotesque ways to initiate
each other into manhood. But, unlike
other cultures, American adolescents
perform these by themselves. Everywhere
else, initiation is undertaken only with
adult supervision to make sure it remains
safe and doesn’t get out of control.Didyouknow