a master’s degree. In 1900, only about 16 percent of American workers had white-
collar jobs, but today the figure is nearing half (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2003).
Because white-collar jobs offer the highest salaries and the most opportunity for
advancement, many sociologists, including C. Wright Mills (1951) have argued that
white-collar workers are more in agreement with capitalism than blue- or pink-
collar workers. However, contemporary scholars note that, in the postindustrial econ-
omy, most white-collar jobs are becoming more regimented and bureaucratic, and
white-collar workers are experiencing a decay in autonomy, creativity, and advance-
ment potential similar to that of the blue-collar workers as they shift downward to
service (Fraser, 2001).
Perhaps the first type of white-collar job you think of is a “profes-
sional.” The term initially, before the Industrial Revolution, referred to
the clergy—universities like Harvard, Yale, and Princeton were founded
to train future ministers. Law and medicine were considered skilled trades,
like carpentry, entered through an apprenticeship rather than a college
degree, and the only requirement for becoming a teacher was knowing
how to read. (In the Middle Ages, the barber was often the village doctor.)
In the twentieth century, doctors, lawyers, and teachers became pro-
fessionals, followed later by scientists, engineers, librarians, architects,
artists, journalists, and entertainers. Professions can generally be distin-
guished from other jobs by four characteristics:
1.Theoretical knowledge. You must have not only technical training
in a skill, but a theoretical understanding of a field. Architecture
became a profession only when it became less about constructing buildings and
more about understanding the dynamics of inhabited space.2.Self-regulating practices. Other jobs have procedures, but professions observe a
code of ethics.3.Authority over clients. Based on their extensive training, professionals are qual-
ified to advise their clients and expect them to obey directions. You expect that
your doctor knows more than you do about your rash.4.Community orientation. Rather than merely seeking personal income, the pro-
fessional has a duty to the community.Alongside the professionals are the white-collar workers in business. Perhaps, as
President Calvin Coolidge said, “the business of America is business.” Business admin-
istration remains the most popular college major, comprising nearly a quarter of all
bachelor’s degrees awarded in 2005 (Digest of Educational Statistics, 2006). Yet less
than 14 percent of American workers are actually employed in management, busi-
ness, and financial occupations. Of these, 57 percent are men and 43 percent women;
87 percent are White, 7 percent Black, 6 percent Hispanic, and 4 percent Asian (the
percentage adds up to more than 100 percent because Hispanic persons can be of any
race) (U.S. Census Bureau, 2004).
Sales is usually considered white collar because it is knowledge work, persuad-
ing people to buy things, but sometimes it is categorized with service jobs because of
its low salary and low prestige. Seventeen percent of American workers are in sales,
about equally divided between men and women. Most are White, with 10 percent
Hispanic, 9 percent Black, and 4 percent Asian (Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2003).
Blue-Collar Jobs.The term blue collarwas first coined in 1951 for jobs involved
with production rather than knowledge, because factory workers traditionally wore
WORK, IDENTITY, AND INEQUALITY 437Real white collars were invented by a
woman named Hannah Montague in 1827.
They were detachable, so they could be
washed separately from the shirts to save
laundry time. By the end of the century,
25 million white collars were being
manufactured in the United States every
year. Too expensive for manual laborers,
they became a status symbol for the new
middle class.Didyouknow