106 ● Anaru Eketone and Shayne Walker
(E. Durie 2005, 4). Durie also saw settling Māori land grievances and
ensuring the place of Māori in the nation’s institutions, such as the Māori
parliamentary seats, as important. Finally, Durie saw biculturalism as a
way of encouraging Pākehā people to engage with Māori language and
culture, which could then contribute to the development of a truly com-
mon national identity.
Another author (incidentally, the older brother of E. Durie) had a much
simpler description of the heart of New Zealand biculturalism: Māori lan-
guage, values, and practices should be reflected in “society’s laws, practices,
and institutional arrangements” (M. Durie 1998, 101); he noted that this
had been implemented in various ways in both government and nongov-
ernmental organizations. M. Durie created a framework of bicultural goals
and showed how different goals should be aligned with changes in organi-
zational practices and governance structures. For example, a goal to develop
cultural skills and knowledge in an institution could change the organiza-
tion’s practices but leave the organization fundamentally unchanged in terms
of its governance structure, whereas other goals might only be achievable
through joint ventures with independent Māori institutions. In such joint
ventures, Māori expectations around governance can significantly impact the
governance structure of partner organizations (M. Durie 1998). Fleras and
Spoonley (1999) developed M. Durie’s framework further, drawing on his
ideas about a bicultural commitment that had a continuum of goals and
structures. At one end of the continuum was the “soft” approach of celebrat-
ing a degree of Māoritanga (Māori culture and ways of life); at the other end
were Māori models of self-determination. These frameworks identified how
various government agencies and nongovernmental organizations sought to
implement a commitment to biculturalism, whether because of compulsion
or of their own volition, to show their commitment to a future that included
Māori and Māori culture.
Social Work and BiculturalismSome sectors took this commitment to biculturalism very seriously and
looked for ways of modifying their own organizational structures accordingly.
The social work profession became one of the strongest allies for Māori, advo-
cating for bicultural practice, especially through the Aotearoa New Zealand
Association of Social Workers (ANZASW). Social workers saw a bicultural
approach as one that could significantly reduce the inherent inequalities of
New Zealand society, including disadvantages to Māori.
The association set up separate Māori and non-Māori caucuses, so that
Māori social workers could discuss their own issues without having to explain